English Learning Methods Essay

Although most people can realize the importance of English in modern life. Mastering English is quite difficult for them, Why? Because they don’t find out a suitable way to learn. I state you about the way to learn English I think it is the best. It is combination of two factors: learning inside the class and learning outside the class. Learning inside the class is very necessary for learners for experience, a good environment for practicing and motivation of studying. Firstly, you should take part fully in class to get knowledge from teachers who can share their valuable experiences for studying English with us, and they also give comment or feed back about your mistakes if you have , they can explain about what you don’t understand the English lessons. Second, class is good environment for studying, is where we can communicate with your friends in English and check your knowledge level, beside when you learn inside the class, you have competition with others, which make you have more motivation for studying but joining in class every day isn’t still enough time for your practice to become a good learner. You should spend more time on practicing yourself at home. Learning English outside is also important. You can study English online at home with threes reasons: not spend much fees, have suitable lesson for each person and have more interesting for lessons. First learning English online at home, which decrease fees for us and don’t much time for moving, second there are many kinds of lesson which are suitable with each learner’s level, there are courses for beginners, both adults and children, as well as more advanced courses for those who work their way up through the lessons. The advanced lessons are also suitable for those who do have the basics of the English language and want to increase their skills in reading, speaking, listening and writing. Thirdly, having many funny activities from English online course. It makes learners more interesting for studying. For example, play funny games such as play cards, puzzle, crossword, or hangman. Moreover, you can watch English film, listen to English news, read English newspaper or chat with native speakers. Many people have the idea that learning English is a difficult process. In fact, the opposite is true and the language is really easy to learn if you spend time on practicing it everyday with above method. You will become a good learner English.

Characters of Journeys End by R.C. Sherriff and Birdsong by Sebastian Faulks Essay

The First World War is known to be one of the worst, if not the worst war in military history. The strategies used were often ineffective and repetitive, meaning a lack of movement and years of stalemate on the western front. Soldiers had to live in conditions which were squalid and foul, they had to deal with diseases such as trench foot and millions of rats and lice infestations. These general images of soldiers living in these fetid conditions has become widely known and linked with the huge suffering caused by the First World War. The use of literature can enable us to gain a picture of what trench warfare was really like. ‘Journey’s End’ a play written by R.C. Sherriff in 1928 based on his own life experiences gives a realistic image of life as a soldier in the trenches. However, the novel ‘Birdsong’ by Sebastian Faulks which was not written till 2005 gives a version of what Faulks believed trench warfare to be like; it is a fictional idea based on knowledge and understanding of World War One. Also the authors chose different formats with one being a novel the other a play, thus giving them contrasting ways of conveying soldiers’ experiences of war. A play deals with the actions and reactions of characters using dialogue and yet a novel can go into the heads of characters, giving the reader an understanding of a person’s emotions and feelings through description and narrative. The characters presented in both Journey’s End and Birdsong are attempting to avoid and deal with the horrors of trench warfare in many different ways including; drinking, violence, and memories of loved ones and trying to use humour as a way of distancing themselves from the horrors facing them. Each character has to find there own way of dealing with the situation, as anyone would when faced with the constant fear of death. In both Journey’s End and Birdsong we get a glimpse of what the characters Stanhope and Wraysford were like before the terror of war affected them. In Journey’s End although we don’t see Stanhope before the war; Sherriff cleverly uses Raleigh to give us an idea of what he was like when he was younger. We see Raleigh as this optimistic, patriotic man excited at the prospect of going into war alongside his childhood hero. His confession to Osborne that he was ‘Keen to get out here’ is a representation of many patriotic soldiers at the break out of the first world war and could show us how Stanhope may have felt before the realisation of what warfare was really like. The growing sense of conflict between Stanhope and Raleigh just shows how much the war has changed Stanhope, and affected him. Not only do we see Raleigh as a young version of Stanhope but also we hear from him background information on Stanhope’s life, ‘he was skipper of Rugger at Barford, and kept wicket for the eleven. A jolly good bat, too.’ This is not needed in Birdsong as we gain a background on what Wraysford was like before the war in part one of the novel. Novels allow writers to add descriptive back stories through narrative rather than dialogue, we can learn about one person’s perspective unlike in a play when we are unable to hear thoughts and feelings – these can only be expressed through actors portraying the role. Birdsong can go into depth about the emotional effects war can have on a person, which is a tricky detail to encapsulate in a play and yet I believe R.C. Sherriff uses dialogue and the actions of each individual to show their emotional state. We can see strongly in both, just what the war can do, seeing and living in those conditions certainly would bring about change in a person however it is the way they deal with it that helps them continue on through. An easy escape for many soldiers during the war was drink. For an ordinary private on the front line getting alcohol was hard and they were only allowed a small drop before going over the top, however officers were allowed to drink (as believed responsible enough for it) and alcoholism among officers was common. Both Stanhope in Journey’s End and Wraysford and Weir in Birdsong use drink as a method of getting through the horrors in front of them, ‘She doesn’t know that if I went up those steps into the front line – without being doped with whisky – I’d go mad with fright’. Drink was a way to forget, and maybe for a moment be away from the front line in their heads, although eventually become addicted not needing it for any purpose but for wanting, ‘cast his eyes round hopefully. Stephen reluctantly pushed a bottle towards him’. Drink was not the best way to deal with the situation though, it may have clouded their memories but would not have completed erase them ‘if sleep came it was as a gift and was as likely to come after tea as after alcohol’. Soldiers on the front line could turn on each other, either because of alcohol consumption or just the fact that these men were pushed together in such bad conditions. Maybe getting angry at one another would give them something other than fighting the enemy to focus on ‘Hibbert raises his stick and strikes blindly at Stanhope’. The violence shown in Journey’s End could also represent the battles taking place outside, as an audience member you never get to see any conflict between the enemy and therefore Stanhope’s arguments and fights with the soldier’s substitutes this. The anger Stanhope feels towards Hibbert and also Raleigh, could also show us how he feels and acts in battle situations. Unlike Journey’s End in Birdsong we are able to follow Stephen as he goes out into No-man’s land, fighting for his life but we also get violence in the trenches too ‘Fuck off, Weir, fuck off out of my way’. The use of the word ‘fuck’ is a powerful one; we can understand Wraysford’s fear just through that one word, all his fear for the battle ahead builds up the tension. In Journey’s End Stanhope is worried about what Raleigh would write home in his letter, I believe that maybe another matter that Stanhope uses to redirect his thoughts away from memories, it gives him something else to think about. Which again leads to more violence ‘D’you understand an order? Give me that letter!’ Despite these small areas of conflict there is a strong theme in both Journey’s End and Birdsong, of comradeship. Men on the front line were often forced into forming new relationships with people and often because of this gained extraordinarily strong bonds with men they were fighting alongside with. This is shown by the example of Stanhope and Osborne, and shown to the audience in many scenes but mostly through the touching goodbye scene before the fatal raid and right at the end Stanhope and Raleigh final bond over his death, ‘Stanhope sits with one hand on Raleigh’s arm’ they had fought together in the same battles and known what the other men had seen, they understood. In Birdsong the strong relationship between Wraysford and Weir grew throughout the novel and like many soldiers on the frontline Wraysford needed Weir for company and to help his sanity, ‘Weir alone had made the war bearable’ friendships like Weir’s and Wraysford’s meant that soldiers could get through the war together. They did not need to be alone. Although Raleigh in Journey’s End believed he needed to distance himself when Osborne dies, Raleigh who is first seen as this innocent character in the beginning of the play is opened to this horror after the death of Osborne, he now knows truly just how hard . He eats away from the officers with the other men, he finds it disrespectful that the others are eating and drinking. Maybe some may believe distancing themselves would mean when or if it came to them dying it would not be as hard. Many soldiers needed to be friends, to join together because even though loss is hard the sharing of jokes in such a situation as terrible as this one may have helped. In Journey’s End many of the characters particularly Trotter’s main form of escapism is in making jokes about the war and the Germans ‘I expect a nasty old German’ll cop out of it and say, ‘Ock der Kaiser’ in doing this they are able to cover up their fear and make light of the situation. In Birdsong the use of comedy is more subtle, the soldiers go down to the pub and watch entertainment and laugh with each other as friends rather than making obvious jokes. Jack performing for the soldiers gave some time for the men to relax and enjoy themselves. ‘If they could shout loud enough, they might bring the world back to its senses; they might laugh loud enough to raise the dead’ although raising the dead was not possible, the idea that in laughing and having as good a time as you can they could remember their losses and keep them alive in their thoughts. In Journey’s End some of the soldiers liked to talk about home and familiar things like rugby and cricket to take their minds of the horrors of trench warfare. Thinking about home would help them to remember how their life was before the war; it would make them want to get out and gave them something to live for. Another thing they might think about is their girlfriends, wives or just women in general, ‘I just prayed to come through the war – and – and do things – and keep absolutely fit for her’. Jack Firebrace wanted to survive for his family, dealt with the struggle with the belief he had his wife and child to return to ‘His endurance was for them; the care he took to try to stay alive was so that he would see the boy again’. As for Stephen he did not have a family or anyone really he wanted to go home for, he kept on fighting and wanting to survive for the men who had died before, he wanted to win, to continue for their benefit. The idea and hope that the men he had lost had not died in vain. With trench conditions as foul as they were; rats, lice and illnesses such as trench foot one thing that could keep the men going was the idea and the relief of getting food. The importance of food in Journey’s End is shown by how many times the men talk about it and bring it up in general conversation. Complaining about inconsequential things like chunks of pineapple instead of apricots take their minds of the war ‘I say, Stanhope, it’s a terrible business. We thought we’d got a tin of pineapple chunks; it turns out to be apricots’. The men on the front lines wouldn’t very often have the nicest of food, and when Stanhope has to visit the Colonel and is given really expensive foods he immediately thinks of his men but he will eat the food as it is the one thing that he can gain pleasure from ‘A thin stew followed, then ripe cheese and fresh bread. Lunch went on past three o’clock†¦Stephen smiled to himself, aware that his bri ef flight from reality would soon be ended’. Birdsong touches on the idea of religion and how this can be affected by war. Many soldiers lost their faith due to the mass slaughter or even the loss of a son at home like Jack Firebrace however Stephen seemed to gain a belief in God, the idea that nothing this cruel can be the end. He hoped that when Weir or any other Soldier died they had a better world to escape to and maybe this idea kept him going helped him deal with the death of his friends. Journey’s End doesn’t really touch on the men’s faith or religion, however the idea of hero worshipping used by Raleigh could be linked. The belief in a God and a higher being could also be like Raleigh looking up to Stanhope ‘I believe Raleigh will go on liking you – and looking up to you – through everything. There’s something very deep, and rather fine, about hero worship.’ Many soldiers may have used the method of positive thinking like Osborne to cover up just how scared and fearful they were ‘I never knew the sun could rise in so many ways till I came out here’. Each soldier on the front line had to choose their own way of escaping and dealing with the horrors of trench warfare. The putrid living conditions and the everyday horror of death meant that it was necessary for them to break out of the truth they were living. Many of the methods used in both Journey’s End and Birdsong are similar but their methods were carried out in different ways. Others didn’t use methods at all, they just didn’t cope; like Hibbert in Journey’s End faking an illness to get away. Each character in either Journey’s End or Birdsong took on different methods of dealing with their long hardships and suffering. The true horrors of the war however could not be forgotten, the sight of death and the stench in the trenches would not be quickly removed from their thoughts. These literary texts both play and book give us, today, just a brief insight into the lives of men on the western front, the challenges faced by these men were truly horrific and just surviving must have been a hardship. No one now or then on the home front could ever know the true extent of the struggle and the effects it had both mentally and physically, ‘If they could see the way these men live they would not believe their eyes. This is not a war; this is an exploration of how far men can be degraded.’

To be determe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

To be determe - Essay Example There were also news about illegal organ harvesting from prisoners who were executed in China (news.bbc.co.uk). Due to this horrific circumstances, organ selling remains to be illegal in the United States as enunciated in the principles written down by Congress in 1984 in the National Organ Transplantation Act that only allows the acquisition of organs through donation (Kass 67) This perspective however is slowly changing considering the issues wrought by the banning of organ sales. In America, an average of 11 people die everyday while waiting for transplant and thousands more are dying and/or already died while waiting for an organ donor (Sally 84). Despite the prohibition of its sale, the black market for organ trade continues to thrive and is even encouraged by the ban to the detriment and peril of its donors. The realization that organ sale cannot be stopped and the widening chasm between the availabe organs and the number of people dying while waiting called for a reconsideration and rethinking of this position (Ritter). Organ trade will continue to exist no matter how strongent its sale is prohibited. Making organ sale illegal will not automatically mean that it will not take place. In fact, this prohibition is the very reason that encouraged the black market to thrive as organ sale is becoming a luxurious business endeavor. This is because supply is being contracted due to the prohibition of its sale while the demand continues to escalate. Making organ sale illegal only makes those who are willing or forced to sell their organs vulnerable with the absense of proper medical care which aggravated the problem further. Prohibition of organ sale also widens the chasm between the unmet need for organ transplant and the available organ. As a result, people die due to the non-availabilit of organ while those who acquired it often do so through illegal means to the detriment

Consumer Problems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Consumer Problems - Essay Example It is identified that carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and extreme heat produced during the disaster amplify the dreadfulness of mattress fires. This paper will explore the lethal effects of mattress fires and will also recommend solutions to the issue. Potential issues of mattress fires As per the report released by CPSC representatives, mattress fire causes 700-1000 deaths annually (Mattress and bedding fires). This huge mattress fires related death rates point out the severity of the issue. According to Mullan (2004), national fire loss estimates assert that mattresses and bedding were the major cause to ignite in 19, 400 residential fire cases attended by fire service during 1995-1999. Although many regulations have been initiated to address the issue, none of them could effectively avoid the mattress fires. The regulations could persuade industries to manufacture fire resistant mattresses. However, even the restructured mattresses are not capable of preventing the spread of fire . The issue has turned to be one of the major social concerns in the United States as technology did not develop an effective method to eliminate this problem. Although cigarette smoking in bed is the main cause of mattress fires, type of suits the individuals wearing, the furniture used, and the room setting also add to the rapid spread of the mattress fires. It is important to note that mattress fires spread very quickly in an uncontrollable manner and hence it increases the chances of fatalities and huge economic loss. According to United States Deputy Fire Administrator Chief Charlie Dickinson (as cited in Morales, 2004), mattress fire doubles itself every minute. From the reported mattress fire cases, it is observed that users of mattresses, their family members, and neighbors in nearby apartment units are at risk of mattress fire. It is assumable that the mattress fire victims would probably be asleep and it adds to the severity of the issue. Similarly, kids and aged persons a re easily affected by mattress fires since they lack sufficient physical fitness to leave the disaster spot instantly. Carbon monoxide is the deadly gas released during mattress fire disasters and it would kill individuals before the flames do. Many consumers are of the belief that previous government regulations have completely eliminated mattress fires; however, these regulations could only reduce the risks associated with mattress disasters. Solutions Obviously, it is difficult to stop the mattress fires completely; therefore, it would be better to explore some remedies that would mitigate the dreadfulness of this issue. Firstly, people must get aware of the dreadfulness of mattress fire and the available disaster response techniques. The adult persons must be careful about removing their children and aged parents from bed at the time of disaster. In addition, one must close the doors to stop fire and call the fire service department. It is advisable for the fire service departme nt to provide awareness programs to the public. Likewise, it is not practical to inhibit people from smoking in bed; hence, it is better to place a protective material layer in between sheets and mattress. In the opinion of Hammack (as cited in Sumi and Williams-Leir, 1969), woolen blankets, cotton cloth treated with a commercial launderable fire retardant, and certain types of plastic sheeting are the effective defensive measures to prevent

Analysing few thing about me Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysing few thing about me - Essay Example This makes them sound bossy to others. Being a good listener is a very good quality that people appreciate. People tend to make friends with me because they think of me as a person whom they can approach for the solutions of their problems as they think I would listen to them. Being a positive thinker is just as helpful as being a good listener in this regard. People find that positive energy in me that they lack in so many other people around them. In an age when there is so much emphasis on materialism, competition, and hatred, people look out for sources of positive energy. So someone with positive thinking really attracts them. Being a good leader is a strength that has benefited me always both academically and professionally. The importance of being a good leader in the contemporary age cannot be overemphasized. One’s leadership skills are needed at almost every step in life. Even in studies, we are required to work as part of a group and assume leadership role from time to time. Being a good leader has helped me achieve my goals efficiently. My weaknesses are that I am very emotional and straight-forward. While being emotional is good to a certain extent, it becomes a weakness when one loses control upon one’s emotions. To hear other’s problems makes me highly emotional. I cry more than most people my age from my gender would do. This makes me appear a little immature to others, but many a times, it is not in my control. Being straight-forward is a bigger issue than being emotional. My straight-forwardness tends to counter my good listening. Sometimes, my friends become angry with me because I tell them their faults straight in their faces. They expect me to be more humble and choosy in my words than I am. I believe that every person, male or female, should try to increase their strengths and decrease their weaknesses. While this is possible to a certain extent, all strengths cannot be increased just like all weaknesses cannot be

Managing People For A Competitive Advantage Essay - 1

Managing People For A Competitive Advantage - Essay Example Every company aims at getting more than their implementation cost and diversity is a very powerful tool which ensures the same when implemented by an organization, this is the only reason why more and more organizations are implementing workforce diversity in their organization. More and more organizations are investing huge amounts of money in workforce diversity in order to keep pace with the customer requirements and customer satisfaction. Workforce diversity often plays an instrumental role in satisfying the needs of a customer. Diversity also provides good social value to an organization and this is another reason why it is implemented. Diversity workforce is pivotal in the success of a company when considered from a perspective of long run; it generates constant cash flow which in turn satisfies the shareholders of a company. This whole process is extremely important for any organization looking to expand or for that matter looking to sustain its growth. Workforce diversity has also become a legal requirement these days, companies have to stick to a policy of non discrimination and recruiting people from diverse backgrounds also satisfies the legal requirements of an organization. Diversity focuses upon the maximum utilization of the resources, the labor market has changed completely these days, it is no longer dominated by the whites, the talent available is huge and if discrimination takes place in an organization it would lead to devastation so implementation of diversity also satisfies a company’s resource requirements. By recruiting people from diverse backgrounds an organization makes sure that no discrimination takes place and the organization utilizes the resources at hand to the maximum extent possible. It is extremely important as a... This essay sheds light upon recruitment and how recruit affects workforce directly, several real life examples are also used in this essay to prove certain very important points. The essay also discusses several important concepts like recruitment, managing workforce effectively, managing a diverse workforce and its several advantages. Recruitment and workforce are very closely connected, workforce diversity is one very good thing, when employees who come from different backgrounds are selected, the organization prospers and this is how they become diverse but when there is no diversity, the organization has little or no options whatsoever. Everything starts from recruitment; this important point has been highlighted throughout the paper, organizations these days are keen on cutting the dead wood out but all those organizations hardly realize that keeping those employees for all these years has hardly done any good to them, the profits automatically come down. The researcher of the e ssay also shed light upon the importance of a diverse workforce, employees who are recruited should be recruited by managers who themselves are from diverse backgrounds and this should go on for several years until the organization reaps healthy rewards generated by this healthy practice. To conclude it is very fair to say that recruitment is arguably the most important step, the next important step is to manage a diverse workforce and to optimize the workforce to ensure that the organization attains all its set targets.

Women in Business Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Women in Business Management - Essay Example Women’s representation has increased drastically in the labor workforce in last few years. The point to be emphasized is that despite of the fact that women are now more educated, highly qualified and more career orientated than they were ever before they still don’t reach the top most positions in the organization and are still either underrepresented on the senior positions or are stuck in the middle managerial levels only. However many researches and scholarly worked showed that women can due to their uniqueness can benefit the organization in many ways. Their different style of leadership can help organization achieve its objectives and their representation on senior level adds greater diversity and transparency in the organization. Despite of all these researches women don’t make their way to the top management level due to many reasons that hinder women growth. In this essay I shall discuss the problems faced by women in reaching the top levels in organizat ions, the sex stereotyping and misconceptions about working women, how men and women lead differently and the advantages and benefits an organization can have of women representation in the senior management. Theoretical background: Statistical Analysis: With the passage of time women all over the world are striving to become independent, the increasing number of women have joined the labor workforce in last few years and they continue to do so. According to US Bureau of Labor Statistics of 2008 women constitutes about 48% of the total labor workforce in US. Despite of being almost half of the total labor workforce, women are unable to make their mark in the top position. The first article that discussed barriers for women’s advancement in the senior managerial roles appeared in The Wall Street Journal in 1986. The study and work on the subject is also referred to as ‘glass ceiling’ which blocked women to take the senior level positions. Since then many researche s and scholarly works have appeared regarding the issues. Studies revealed that women are not presented equally on the senior management positions, even if they reach these positions they remain under paid. In 2002, in the Fortune 500 companies women only acquired 15.7% of the corporate officer level position. While in recent times, according to a study released by Catalyst- a non profit organization working for the empowerment of women, the main reason stopping women to be a part of senior management in the organization is the gender stereotyping. Despite of being equivalent to men, women are often left with conflicting, unfavorable options due to such circumstances. Catalyst’s data released in 2011 showed that women hold 46.7% of total labor workforce in US out of which 51.5% of women, almost half hold professional and management occupations and according to Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) women hold 33% of top managerial positions in UK. However, even after holding su ch high percentage of total workforce women are still underrepresented in the top 500 fortune companies of the world where they hold only 6.7% of the top senior management positions that include corporate officer positions, board seats and chief executive titles. (BILIMORIA & PIDERIT. 2007; ARFKEN, BELLAR & HELMS. 2004; PICHLER, SIMPSON, & STROH. 2008; EVANS, D. 2011) With the passage of time there have been certain changes in women’s participation in the total labor work force. Initially women workers constitute more of part-time workers than full time, now with the changing trend the number of

The Revival of Roman and Greek Architecture in The Palace of Fine Art, Essay

The Revival of Roman and Greek Architecture in The Palace of Fine Art, San Francisco - Essay Example The particular event lasted from February to December of 1915. The event that became a tradition marks the commemoration of both the recovery of the state from an earthquake in 1906 and the conclusion of the construction of the Panama Canal1. The Palace of Fine Arts has different important structural components and architectural elements that can be considered as an integration of both the Roman and the Greek architectural designs. This is due to the fact that the main objective of the architect Bernard Maybeck is a representation of the ruins of Roman and Greek culture combined through the amalgamation of their unique styles. Due to the said objective a unique architectural style was given birth2. The Palace of Fine Arts is a unique structure that was built for a temporary purpose, an exhibition to last less than a year, but the effort that was put in the building of the edifice stretched it life for half a century. The Roman structure and architectural style can be recognized in the columns that line the building specially the central rotunda and the arch3. These columns are specifically described to be Corinthian, the fourth to fifth century Roman architectural design4. Central part was located near the lagoon which added to the attraction of the Palace, giving its visitors an extraordinary experience. The display rooms that can be counted to 113 room... The particular part where artworks are kept was constructed at the rear of the arched area to be able to provide a larger space for what is considered to be the focal point of the Palace, the central rotunda. Circular dome and the eight Roman columns make up the central rotunda linked by a bridge to the pergola. This form of structure can be observed in Roman temples in the early times. A total representation of the grandeur of the Roman architecture but humbled by the evident reconstruction of the ruins5. This interaction of element to bring about a message to the observers is the real objective of the constructed structure. The elements of Greek art can be observed in the decorations and added designs to the Palace of Fine Arts. The sculptures, the murals and the ornate decorations mark the architectural design of the Greeks that can be observed in the Palace6. Some of the priced artworks are murals of Robert Reid which is composed of four sections that describe mainly the development of art in the different regions of the world, in relation to the concept presented by the exhibition. Other art pieces that adorn the Palace depict the extravagant architectural design of the Greek. Some of there are the sculptures such as the Aspiration by Leo Lentielli, a statue that offers himself for art, and the columns lined with statues by Ulric Ellerhusen depicting the strong feeling in the absence of art. The ornaments mainly depict the Greek culture. In addition to the decorations, the eight panel located underneath the dome was described to represent the Greek culture, specifically the importance of arts in the culture of the Greek7. On the basis of the described Palace of Fine Arts according to published works, it

Discuss with reference to two other poems Essay Example for Free

Discuss with reference to two other poems Essay Crossing the Bar’ contains the most powerful presentation of death in the anthology. To what extent do you agree? Discuss with reference to two other poems in the collection – Tennyson question Tennyson presents death in different ways in ‘Crossing the Bar’, ‘Break break break’ and ‘Morte D’Arthur’. Each presentation is powerful however; it is difficult to decide whether ‘Crossing the Bar’ contains the most powerful presentation because it depends on what type of death the reader finds the most significant. If it is the death of one’s own life, then ‘Crossing the Bar’ might seem more powerful because it is a representation of Tennyson’s complacency with his own death. But, if the death of a friend relates more to the reader’s personal experience, death in ‘Morte D’Arthur’ could be more meaningful and powerful. To some extent I do not agree that ‘Crossing the Bar’ contains the most powerful presentation of death in the anthology. Both ‘Crossing the Bar’ and ‘Break break break’ use imagery of the sea to convey different meanings. In ‘Crossing the Bar’, the sea represents the world the speaker will transgress into after death. ‘And may there be no moaning of the bar, when I put out to sea’. Tennyson uses the metaphor of the sandbar to describe the barrier between life and death. One side of the sandbar is life and the sea on the other side is death. This is a powerful representation because Tennyson sets out a distinction between the two worlds clearly, suggesting that death should be embraced because it’s now peaceful and natural. ‘And may there be no sadness of farewell, when I embark’. This is in contrast to the normal response of death, which is indicated in ‘Break break break’. In ‘Break break break’ the speaker displays feelings of anguish and pain, this is shown in the title. The repetition of the word ‘break’ emphasises the onomatopoeic sound of a heart breaking. It could also be interpreted as waves breaking on the rocks. ‘Break break break at the foot of thy crags, O sea! ’ This quote describes how life progresses in an endless cycle even in the event of the death. The effect of the ‘O’ and exclamation mark at the end punctuates the speaker’s frustration that life still continues to go on. The speaker takes on a tone of bitterness that the world is not morning with him. ‘O, well for the sailor lad, that he sings in his boat on the bay! ’ In contrast, the use of an exclamation mark in ‘Crossing the bar’ demonstrates the speaker’s excitement of death instead of feelings of enragement. ‘Sunset and evening star, And one clear call for me! ’ This shows how the speaker is compliant of death because it is their own life and they are ready, however in ‘Break break break’ the speaker is demoralised because death has taken their friend without warning. ‘Crossing the Bar’ and ‘Break break break’ both present death powerfully, however ‘Break break break’ may appear more powerful because it uses an expression of grief caused by loss and uses intense emotions, like anguish. Then again, to some extent I do agree that ‘Crossing the Bar’ contains the most powerful presentation of death in the anthology, especially in comparison with ‘Morte D’Arthur’. A similarity between ‘Crossing the Bar’ and ‘Morte D’Arthur’ is that they both discuss religion and relate them to death. King Arthur’s death in ‘Morte D’Arthur’ can be seen as an allegory for the loss of honour and chivalry in an increasingly materialistic age. ‘And the days darken around me, and the years, among new men, strange faces, other minds’. Arthur and his knights at the round table can be interpreted as Jesus and his disciples. ‘But now the whole round table has dissolved, which was an image of a mighty world. ’ The presentation of death here appears powerful because it is the removal of a higher authority, which has followers and believers just like religion. If a God is removed, then the religion will fall apart because it no longer has a leader. This makes the death of Arthur seem even more significant because it represents the collapse of civilisation. ‘Ah! My Lord Arthur, whither shall I go? ’ However, ‘Crossing the Bar’ uses religious connotations such as ‘crossing’ to describe the speaker’s journey into the next world or crossing into faith and devotion. Tennyson complements this metaphorical link with a spiritual one as he hopes he will see his ‘Pilot face to face’. This can also be interpreted as Tennyson hopes to see Hallam in the Pilot, however it is more likely that Tennyson is discussing a Christian God. This is because seeing God face to face is a biblical theme and the transition from life to death in Christianity allows people to join God in heaven, which is beyond ‘Time and Place’. The presentation of death in ‘Crossing the Bar’ may appear the most powerful because unlike ‘Morte D’Arthur’, death becomes an end that is not confusing. In ‘Morte D’Arthur’ Arthur goes to Avilion, which could be a metaphor for heaven. However, he leaves behind a disorientated world with a lack of guidance. In comparison, the bar in ‘Crossing the Bar’ is also a metaphor for heaven, but the crossing is far more peaceful and conclusive. To conclude, I believe that ‘Crossing the Bar’ contains the most powerful presentation of death because in contrast to ‘Break break break’ Tennyson is conclusive – he is being valiant about his own deaf or has come to terms with the grief of his friend and is ready to be reunited with him. ‘And may there be no moaning of the bar’. Even the structure of the poem can represent the shortness of life. By having fewer words, they can hold more control and capture the attention of the reader. In contrast, ‘Morte D’Arthur’ is longer and this makes the presentation of death less powerful because the meaning may be lost as the poem is read.

African Americans Essay Example for Free

African Americans Essay The African American journey has been one of trials and tribulations which they suffered greatly to achieve freedom and success. The battle has led the citizens of this nation to have witnessed the first African American President of the United States. The journey that has brought African Americans to the present situation has seen intermittent successes and numerous setbacks. Perseverance from many generations has brought about a gradual but progressive change. The journey begun in a state of slavery, through the act of slavery racism was seen in its rarest forms. The long journey emerged from African Americans being sold to white traders and transported across the Atlantic Ocean. Slaves were auctioned off and sold to the highest bidders. African Americans were considered personal property of the white man and viewed as economic commodity. Their strength and endurance was formed as a result of working in the fields and kitchens from sunrise to sunset. The slaves lived off of the bare necessities in life. This act of slavery existed for decades and helped to shape the course of American history. From slavery to the March on Washington and many other events, African Americans have fought for their rights in United States, and have achieved their identity through many historical movements. The 13th Amendment to the US Constitution officially abolished slavery and freed the slaves to make a life for themselves as the Reconstruction Period. During the Reconstruction Era (1867) African Americans still suffered hardships under the leadership of Andrew Johnson who became president after Lincoln had got assassinated in 1865. Andrew Johnson had no intention of helping the African Americans he wanted to punish the slaveholders in the South. Andrew Jackson opposed giving African Americans the freedom to vote or equal rights. 1870 the 15th Amendment was ratified and became a law that specified African Americans: Historical Journey from 1865 to the Present 3 African American men had the right to vote. Voting was part of African Americans receiving civil liberties. The Civil Rights Movement and racial oppression were very significant moments in the American history. Exploitation was seen based on the color of one’s skin. Oppression was the way to keep the African American’s voice unheard. The dominant race manipulated America and shaped it according to the value of one race in society. Gaining equality was the essence of the struggle for African Americans in which white society pushed to prohibit African Americans from gaining any form of equality. Americans were uninformed and unaware of how corrupt the government officials were. During the historical journey of the African Americans the government failed to have all humans’ best interest in mind. The African American Journey Devastation of trials and tribulations were prevalent among the African Americans before 1865. The Civil War put a new twist on how society tuned into a racist world. Racism was very powerful and demanding during this period in life. Racism still prevails in the present tense only in more subtle ways. Before 1865 issues with slavery depicted lynching, segregation, low wages for job performances and derogatory defamation of character within a race due to skin pigmentation. Slavery and degradation never killed the desire of freedom and a promising future for African Americans. This was one of the foremost occurrences of hatred and dehumanizing of man because of the color of their skin. This exemplified the state of condition the African Americans were placed and recognized that another race was superior or had power over another race. African Americans were considered powerless over their own lives. The Emancipation African Americans: Historical Journey from 1865 to the Present 4 Proclamation and the Thirteenth Amendment were passed by a strong leader named Abraham Lincoln, which declared all of America’s slaves were free by 1865. In 1865, African Americans were finally feeling like human beings and not like property that endured brutality, harsh whippings, no rights as humans and cruel punishment. The passing of various civil liberty movements’, education, employment and voting privileges improved. Fox (2014) stated that southern blacks were impatient in seeking voting privileges. The U. S. Constitution gave all blacks a nominal right to vote, but southern blacks were often blocked at the polls, and racial apartheid was the foundation of a rigid caste system. The Thirteenth and Fifteenth Amendment abolished slavery and Americans were making strides to work things out. After the release of slaves the black codes of law were passed laws, statues, and rules enacted by southern states after the Civil War to gain control over the slaves again and protect the white man’s property from retaliation. The slave owners were worried that they had to do the Plantation work themselves after the slaves were freed, and blacks would want revenge on them because of the hardships of oppression over hundreds of years. Progression of African Americans throughout the 18th and 19th centuries was a struggle. The relationships between blacks and whites were, frustrating and intense, primarily because the concept of reigning in superior positions over African Americans lives in respect to finances, social activities, cultural values or political affiliations has not changed significantly. African Americans fought for equal opportunity and their rights as a human race. They struggled to fit in with society. Despite the developments and changes, many fiscal and visual (how they were perceived) characteristics of African Americans at the end of the nineteenth century did not African Americans: Historical Journey from 1865 to the Present 5 differ from that of the mid-1800s. 1865-1876 was considered a time of change for African Americans but racism continued to cause much pain and despair for African Americans. Two significant events that surfaced to support the emergence of African Americans was the Harlem Renaissance Movement (1920) and the Civil Rights Movement. The Harlem Renaissance contributed to the talents and cultural beliefs of African Americans. They were able to bring perspective and pride to their lives. Harlem Renaissance was defined as: The Harlem Renaissance was the name given to the cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem between the end of World War I and the middle of the 1930s. During this period Harlem was a cultural center, drawing black writers, artists, musicians, photographers, poets, and scholars. Many had come from the South, fleeing its oppressive caste system in order to find a place where they could freely express their talents (Educational Broadcasting Corporation, 2002, p. 1). African Americans felt they were able to make specific contributions to society and start communicating their feelings, beliefs and values to others. The Harlem Renaissance Movement brought different racial groups together in appreciation of the music and poetry but did not have much success in breaking the racial divide between the races that were expressed in the Jim Crow excerpts. â€Å"The Renaissance incorporated jazz and the blues, attracting whites to Harlem speakeasies, where interracial couples danced. It contributed to a certain relaxation of racial attitudes among young whites, but its greatest impact was to reinforce race pride among blacks† (Educational Broadcasting Corporation, 2002, p. 1). The 1964 Civil Rights Movement gave African Americans the right to take a stand against racism. Racial discrimination was a major problem that caused havoc in the lives of African Americans. Several events emerged from the Civil Rights African Americans: Historical Journey from 1865 to the Present 6 movement that made a significant impact on the lives of African Americans- the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Black Power Movement. The events above promoted a means of outlawing racial discrimination. Segregation was protested through political and social protest rallies and campaigns. The Black Power Movement gave African Americans a voice to be heard. Political and religious reasons were heard as their voices resonated throughout society. â€Å"The African American movement gained political legitimacy because it politicized the grievances of collective memory and appealed to a common ancestry to regain for this people cultural, political, and economic rights by rejecting subordination and White cultural supremacy or hegemony† (Jalata, 2002, p. 1). Before the Civil Rights Movement America was considered in the realms of practicing apartheid. All African Americans were humiliated, denied their civil rights and liberties, dehumanized and suffered tremendous hardships. Several movements initiated progress for African Americans. They were finally gaining their rights to live as human beings and become a part of society. â€Å"But the awkward truth is that when it comes to the goals laid down by the civil rights movement in general and Brown in particular, America is actually going backward† (Younge, 2014, p. 10). A school in Little Rock marked a turn in events for African Americans. This was in 1957 when the governor issued an order to the National Guard troops to stop the nine black children from entering the school. The order was denied and a mob of white students intimidated the black students. Federal soldiers escorted the black students into the school and were protected by the armed guards. The governor, African Americans: Historical Journey from 1865 to the Present 7 Faubus, closed all of the city’s schools to prevent integration. The African Americans prevailed regardless of the circumstances. According to Pearson Education (2000) other events that marked a period of setbacks and progression in the lives of African Americans are: †¢1931 NINE BLACK YOUTHS ARE INDICTED IN SCOTTSBORO, ALA., ON CHARGES OF HAVING raped two white women. †¢1947 JACKIE ROBINSON BREAKS MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALLS COLOR BARRIER WHEN HE IS signed to the Brooklyn Dodgers by Branch Rickey. †¢1952 MALCOLM X BECOMES A MINISTER OF THE NATION OF ISLAM. OVER THE NEXT several years his influence increases until he is one of the two most powerful members of the Black Muslims. †¢1963 MARTIN LUTHER KING WAS ARRESTED FOR MARCHING AGAINST ANTI-SEGREGATION. †¢1966 THE BLACK PANTHERS WAS FOUNDED. †¢1967 THURGOOD MARSHALL WAS APPOINTED TO THE SUPREME COURT. †¢2002 HALLE BERRY AND DENZEL WASHINGTON RECEIVED OSCARS FOR BEST ACTORS. †¢1992 RACIAL RIOTS ARE SEEN IN LOS ANGELES AFTER ACQUITTING FOUR WHITE BOYS FOR beating Rodney King. African Americans: Historical Journey from 1865 to the Present 8 †¢2005 CONDOLEEZZA RICE BECOMES THE FIRST BLACK FEMALE U. S. SECRETARY OF STATE. †¢2009 BARACK OBAMA BECAME THE FIRST AFRICAN AMERICAN PRESIDENT. Many problems that exist today seem to be repeating themselves. America seems to be making an upturn and the ugly faces of racism are reappearing. Younge (2014) stated that schools are re-segregating, legislation is being gutted, it’s getting harder to vote, large numbers are being deprived of their basic rights through incarceration, and the economic disparities between black and white are growing. In many areas, America is becoming more separate and less equal. Overcoming hurdles was nothing new to Obama and Colin Powell. Both men achieved success in American society. Obama became the first black president and Colin Powell became Secretary of State and served on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Barack Obama is the first African American President of the United States and that is considered a very important step forward in this country. His administration has been one of struggle and plight to succeed because of the turmoil going on in the nation. Obama has succeeded in great ways without the support of many Republicans in the house. Asked So, how has being Black affected your ability to govern? , Obama replied in part: By virtue of being African-American, Im attuned to how throughout this countrys history there have been times when folks have been locked out of opportunity, and because of the hard work of people of all races† (Cooper, 2012, p. 11). Obama has been successful in making equal opportunity a solution to African Americans: Historical Journey from 1865 to the Present 9 many problems. He has slowly opened the doors to more people and made equal opportunity happen through vigilance and determination. A great historical event occurred when Obama was elected as President. This surprised many Americans in the world. This symbolized a step forward towards racial equality in the history of African Americans. This election captured several important turn of events that said we have made great accomplishments. This completed the Civil Rights Movement and what it stood for, an emergence of a post-racial society, the elimination of multiculturalism and the possibility of ending the black struggle. There were several activist that would not have concluded that the black struggle has ended. Those people were Marcus Garvey, Ella Baker and Huey P. Newton. Their beliefs were based on specific facts that unifying scattered people of African descent, inspiring racial pride, and ultimately creating a separate, independent country should be the goals of racial uplift. Garvey thought black people were oppressed and divided as a race. Because they were ‘scattered as an unmixed and unrecognized part’ in numerous nations they were dependent upon the other races for kindness and sympathy. Many people have struggled to explain the plight of the African American race but the journey was one of hardship, courage and endurance that built character. The African American race has come a long way from cruelty and hardship inflicted during the 1800’s. The journey encompassed freedom, voting rights, civil liberties and equality. African Americans: Historical Journey from 1865 to the Present 10 References Blackpast. org. (2007). African American history timeline 1901-2000. Retrieved from http://www. blackpast. org/timelines/african-american-history-timeline-1900-2000 Cooper, K. J. (2012). The Presidents Report Card. Crisis (15591573), 119(4), 6. Retrieved from http://search. ebscohost. com. proxy-library. ashford. edu/login. aspx? direct=truedb=f5hAN=88314705site=eds-live Educational Broadcasting Corporation (2002). The Harlem Renaissance. Retrieved from http://www. pbs. org/wnet/jimcrow/stories_events_harlem. html Fox Piven, F. (2014). 50 and FIGHTING. Planning, 80(6), 10. Retrieved from http://search. ebscohost. com. proxy-library. ashford. edu/login. aspx? direct=truedb=f5hAN=96548704site=eds-live Jalata, A. (2002). Revisiting the black struggle: Lessons for the 21st century. Journal of Black Studies, 33(1). Retrieved from African Americans: Historical Journey from 1865 to the Present 11 http://search.ebscohost. com. proxy-library. ashford. edu/login. aspx? direct=truedb=edbAN=7268500site=eds-live Kirk, J. (2009). THE LONG ROAD TO EQUALITY. History Today, 59(2), 52-58. Retrieved from http://search. ebscohost. com. proxy-library. ashford. edu/login. aspx? direct=truedb=aphAN=36590274site=eds-live Pearson Education. (2000). African American history timeline. Retrieved from http://www. infoplease. com/spot/bhmtimeline. html Younge, G. (2014). The Awkward Truth about Race. Nation, 298(24), 10-11. Retrieved from http://search. ebscohost. com. proxy-library. ashford. edu/login. aspx? direct=truedb=aphAN=96204081site=eds-live.

Neurobiological Mechanisms that Cause Aggression

Neurobiological Mechanisms that Cause Aggression Review of the Neurobiological Mechanisms Which Underpin Reactive Aggression in Humans: a Closer Look at Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) Module 1: Prosocial and antisocial behaviours across the lifespan Violent acts have a significant toll on human societies: annually over 1.6 million deaths worldwide occur due to human violence (Viding Frith, 2006). Although acts of aggression have an important adaptive purpose, when overexpressed, they may result in destructive consequences. Conventionally, aggression has been defined as an intentional action with a purpose to inflict physical damage on another individual (Nelson Trainor, 2007). Currently two forms of aggression have been recognized in humans: controlled aggression instrumental subtype, and reactive aggression impulsive subtype (Vatiello Stoff, 1997). Instrumental aggression, also referred to as premeditated and predatory, is generally planned and goal-oriented and has often been linked to psychopathy (Blair, 2001). This kind of aggression is thought to be regulated primarily by higher cortical systems and is characterized by diminished amygdala response (Nelson Trainor, 2007). Reactive aggression on the other hand, is depen dent on the limbic and hypothalamic systems, and is characterized by high autonomic arousal (Siever, 2008). Impulsive aggression generally represents a direct response to stimuli and accounts for the majority of violent acts. Individuals with borderline personality disorder, intermittent explosive disorder, or ADHD are particularly prone to reactive aggression and impulsivity. Previous research on the neurobiology of aggression pointed out that for such individuals, repetitive acts of aggression are often influenced by the underlying neurobiological susceptibility (Nelson Trainor, 2007). Indeed, one remarkable feature of aggression is its apparent heritability. Twin and adoption studies suggest that genetic factors account for between 40% and 50% of population variance in risk of antisocial aggression (Buckholtz Meyer-Lindenberg, 2008). However, the relationship between aggression and the underlying neurobiology is far from being simple (Nelson Trainor, 2007; Siever, 2008). Previous research in individuals prone to impulsivity and reactive aggression as well as a number of studies based on animal models identified numerous genetic loci and neurotransmitters associated with reactive violence, including, but not limited to, Dopaminergic genes (DRD4, DRD5, and DAT1), Serotonergic genes (5HTT, HTR1B), and genes responsible for encoding enzymes involved in regulating the levels of these neurotransmitters, particularly catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), and Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA), often referred to as â€Å"the warrior gene†. However, the association between genotype and phenotype of aggression is only beginning to be properly understood (Caspi, McClay, Moffitt, Mill, Martin, Craig, Taylor, Poulton, 2002; Nelson Trainor, 2007; Siever, 2008). While there have been many studies showing the association between different genes and aggression, results were often mixed and inconclusive. Currently, the best candidate gene with the most supportive evid ence appears to be Monoamine Oxidase A (see: Brunner, Nelen, Breakefield, Ropers, van Oost, 1993; Byrd Manuck, 2014; Cases, Seif, Grimsby, Gaspar, Chen, Pournin, Muller, et al.,1995; Caspi, et al., 2002). The MAOA gene, located on the X chromosome, is a functional polymorphism with high activity (MAOA-H) and low activity (MAOA-L) variants, which encodes the MAOA enzyme, responsible for breaking-down neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine (Shih, Chen, Ridd, 1999; Viding Frith, 2006). Previous research using animal models as well as humans demonstrated an association between aggression and genetic deficiency in MAOA activity (Rowe, 2001). Transgenic mice without the gene encoding MAOA had higher amounts of brain serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA), and norepinephrine (NE), and displayed increased aggression (Cases, et al., 1995). After restoring MAOA activity, mice aggression was stabilized (Shih Thompson, 1999). In humans, point mutation in the MAOA gene led to MAOA deficiency and was found to be associated with reactive aggression in several men from the Dutch family. Moreover, across generations, these men with MAOA knockout also showed frequent violent outb ursts, particularly in response to mild provocation, and impulsive antisocial behaviour such as assault, rape, and attempted murder. (Brunner, et al., 1993). This condition, however, is quite uncommon and is unlikely to explain much variation in human violence and aggression. Findings of the studies that only looked at levels of MAOA activity and antisocial outcomes in adulthood have been mixed and thus problematic to interpret since both MAOA-H and MAOA-L were linked to reactive aggression (Ficks Waldman, 2014; Nelson Trainor, 2007; Siever, 2008). The study that produced very robust findings in that area and has later proven seminal was conducted by Caspi and colleagues (2002). This study was the first to look at the effects of MAOA activity in combination with childhood maltreatment on reactive aggression in adulthood. Indeed, adverse childhood experiences were found to affect the development and functioning of neural pathways involving the neurotransmitters metabolised by MAOA which can potentially result in increased aggression (Caspi, et al., 2002). Thus, Caspi and colleagues (2002) hypothesised that childhood maltreatment can predict reactive aggression in adulthood, and that this relationship is moderated by levels of MAOA expression. Results of this study demonstrated the dose-response effect of childhood maltreatment on the aggressive behaviour in adulthood, which was consistent with prior findings. However, this effect was much smaller in participants with the high-activity version of the MAOA gene as compared to men with low MAOA activity, suggesting the protective property of MAOA-H (Caspi et al, 2002). Moreover, as levels of maltreatment increased, so did the protective effect of the MAOA-H variant. A low-activity MAOA gene combined with a history of childhood maltreatment increased the risk of aggressive behaviour in adulthood sevenfold. These results supported the predicted hypothesis that MAOA activity would act as a moderator of the effects of childhood maltreatment on antisocial outcomes in adulthood. This study paved the way to a number of subsequent studies looking at gene and environment interaction. A recently published meta-analysis, which looked at 27 peer-reviewed studies on adverse childhood experiences, MAOA genotype, and aggressive and antisocial behaviour showed that results across 20 male cohorts (11064 participants) were largely consistent with findings from the original study by Caspi and colleagues (2002) (Byrd Manuck, 2014). These findings remained robust even after removing each study individually. However, the question remains, how does low activity MAOA gene in combination with childhood stressors translate to antisocial behaviours in adulthood? Several theories have been proposed to answer this question. On one hand, the association between low activity MAOA gene and aggression appears paradoxical, since MAOA-L leads to increased levels of serotonin, which has been found to be positively correlated with impulse control and negatively correlated with aggression (Manuch, Flory, Ferrell, Mann, Muldoon, 2000; Siever, 2008). However, MAOA also plays a role in regulating dopamine and norepinephrine, which were shown to lower thresholds for violent response to perceived threat (Manuch, et al., 2000). High levels of DA and NE, resulting from MAOA dysfunction, would activate a fight or flight response, and indirectly enhance aggression (Volavka, Bilder, Nolan, 2004). Indeed, previous studies showed a similar association between COMT gene (also responsible for breakdown of NE and DA ) and aggression (Siever, 2007; Volavka, et al., 2004). Therefore the elevated levels of NE and DA, due to low expression of MAOA, would be consistent with the results of previous studies, showing an association between low activity MAOA gene and aggression. Nevertheless, this theory does not account for the role of childhood maltreatment on aggression, and as it was mentioned previously, results of studies looking solely at MAOA activity and aggression are mixed and inconclusive, showing both high and low activity MAOA gene being associated with impulsive aggression (Ficks Waldman, 2014; Nelson Trainor, 2007; Siever, 2008). Another theory that sheds more light on the mechanism through which MAOA deficiency in combination with childhood maltreatment influences aggression in adulthood relies on the findings that high concentrations of intracellular serotonin have been associated with increased reactivity to stress and elevated anxiety (Seif De Maeyer, 1999, Viding Frith, 2006). Therefore, it is possible that MAOA deficiency might predispose individuals to neural hyper-reactivity to a threat (maltreatment). While genetic predisposition alone rarely results in adverse outcomes in adulthood, when combined with childhood stressors, it might potentially have consequences on brain function (Meyer-Lindenberg, Buckholtz, Kolachana, Hariri, Pezawas, Blasi, Wabnitz, et al., 2006). Previous findings in populations prone to impulsive violence demonstrated functional and structural abnormalities in brain areas associated with perception and regulation of emotions, particularly in the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, and the interconnected regions (Davidson, Putnam, Larson, 2000). Neuropsychological functions associated with these brain regions were also compromised in the aforementioned populations (Blair, Peschardt, Budhani, Mitchell, Pine, 2006). Previous work using animal models and clinic samples seems to suggest that maltreatment negatively affects the functioning of the neural structures involved during an individual’s reaction to threat (i.e., pariaquaductal gray and amygdala) and the regulation of the triggered threat response (i.e., orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate). Therefore, the genetic risk (MAOA-L) along with childhood maltreatment may result in changes to brain function, and subsequently increases the risk of impulsive aggression (Viding Frith, 2006). These speculations imply that there is no one clear explanation for the findings we currently have regarding genetic variation and its effect on aggression. The human brain and the effects of genetic and environmental factors on its development are too complex to assume that one specific gene, or neurotransmitter levels are responsible for aggression. More likely, it is the gradual change in neural pathways that regulate aggression. As of this moment, it still remains unclear if aggression in adulthood that is observed in many of the aforementioned studies is due to developmental change in neural circuits or to a change in neurotransmitter function. Moreover, the effects of these changes for adults are very different than for children. Therefore, it is possible that low MAOA activity resulted in compensatory changes which transformed the organisation of the nervous system in children during the sensitive period of brain development, and was later reflected in antisocial outcomes in a dulthood (Lesch Merschdorf, 2000). Attempts to replicate Caspi et. al. (2002) findings in female populations yielded significantly different results. Recent meta-analysis that looked at 11 studies with female samples produced inconclusive results: even though MAOA activity had a significant association with adverse childhood events, high, as opposed to low, MAOA activity in combination with childhood maltreatment was associated with antisocial behaviour in adulthood. Moreover, this interaction was weaker, and after removing a few individual studies, it lost its significance (Byrd Manuck, 2014). Replicating Caspi and colleagues’ study using female cohorts has proven to be significantly more complicated for two main reasons. First of all, dividing females into two groups based on MAOA activity is challenging due to uncertain inactivation of heterozygous alleles. Secondly, severe personality disorders and antisocial outcomes are quite rare in women, thus it is difficult to get a large enough sample to demonstrate dose-response relationships. In sum, taking into account findings from previous studies it is unclear what relationship MAOA activity plays in antisocial outcomes in women, and calls for further investigation (Caspi, et al., 2002; Byrd Manuck, 2014). In attempts to understand the relationship between genes, environment, and aggression, the study by Caspi and colleagues (2002), as well as numerous studies that came out afterward, certainly advanced our understanding in the field. However, it is important to point out the limitations that characterise many of the research studies investigating the relationship between gene-environment interaction and adult antisocial behaviour. First of all, lack of published articles reporting null findings due to publication bias still remains a big problem in the field. As a result, published findings seem more robust than they actually are (Duncane Keller, 2011). Secondly, the samples of many studies, primarily those with female subjects, are often too small resulting in inadequate statistical power (Byrk Manuck, 2014). Indeed, negative findings had larger sample sizes compared to positive ones. These limitations make it difficult to correct for potential false-positive results (Duncan Kelle r, 2011). This is especially the case in replication attempts using female populations, and in neuroimaging studies. Finally, due to the difficulty recruiting participants for these studies, samples are often not easily comparable and consist of individuals with many comorbid psychiatric conditions, making it difficult to tease apart effects of certain genetic variations and maltreatment on specific psychopathology (McCrory, DeBrito, Viding, 2010). While there is strong evidence to suggest that genotype, particularly variants of the Monoamine Oxidase A gene, in combination with childhood maltreatment, plays an important role in reactive aggression in human adulthood, the exact underlying mechanism remains unclear. The aforementioned controversies call for caution when making any strong conclusions regarding the effects of genetic variation on antisocial outcomes. Further research, including longitudinal studies, genome-wide association studies, gene-environment-sex and gene-gene interaction studies, and neuroimaging studies, is necessary to better understand the underlying neurobiological mechanisms which underpin reactive aggression in humans. References: Blair, R. J. (2001). Neurocognitive models of aggression, the antisocial personality disorders, and psychopathy. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 71, 727-731. Blair, R. J. R., Peschardt, K. S., Budhani, S., Mitchell, D. G., Pine, D. S. J. (2006). The development of psychopathy. Journal of Chid. Psychology and Psychiatry and allied disciplines, 47(3-4), 262-276. Brunner, H. G., Nelen, M., Breakefield, X. O., Ropers, H. H., van Oost, B. A. (1993). Abnormal behaviour associated with point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A. Science, 262(5133), 578-580. Buckholtz J. W. Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAO and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. Trends in Neuroscience, 31(3), 120-129. Byrd, A. L. Manuck, S. B. (2014). MAOA, Childhood Maltreatment, and Antisocial Behavior: Meta-analysis of a gene-Environment Interaction. Biological Psychiatry, 75(1), 9-17. Cases, O., Seif, I., Grimsby, J., Gaspar, P., Chen, K., Pournin, S., Muller, U., et al. (1995). Aggressive behaviour and altered amounts of brain serotonin and norepinephrine in mice macking MAOA. Science, 268(5218), 1763-1766. Caspi, A., McClay, J. Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., Taylor, A., Poulton, R. (2002). Role of Genotype in the Cycle of Violence in Maltreated Children. Science, 297(2), 851-853. Davidson, R. J., Putnam, K. M., Larson, C. L. (2000). Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation- a possible prelude to violence. Science, 289(5479), 591-594. Duncan, L. Keller, M. (2011). A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 1041-1049. Ficks, C. Waldman, I. (2014). Candidate Genes for Aggression and Antisocial Behavior: A Meta-analysis of Association Studies of the 5HTTLPR and MAOA-uVNTR. Behavioral Genetics, 44(5), 427-444. Lesch, K. P. Merschdorf, U. (2000). Impulsivity, aggression, and serotonin: A molecular psychobiological perspective. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 18, 581-604. Manuch, S. B., Flory, J. D., Ferrell, R. E., Mann, J. J., Muldoon, M. F. (2000). A regulatory polymorphism of the monoamine oxidase- A gene may be association with variability in aggression, impulsivity, and central nervous system serotonergic responsivity. Psychiatry Research, 95, 9-23. McCrory, E., De Brito, S. A., Viding, E. (2010). Research Review: The neurobiology and genetics of maltreatment and adversity. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(10), 1079-1095. Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Buckholtz, J. W., Kolachana, B., Hariri, A. R., Pezawas, L., Blasi, G., Wabnitz, A., Honea, R., Verchinski, B., Callicott, J., et al. (2006). Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans. Proceedings of Natlional Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(16), 6269-6274. Nelson, R. J., Trainor, B. C. (2007). Neural mechanisms of aggression. Nature, 8, 536-546. Shih J. C. Thompson, R. F. (1999). Monoamine oxidase in neuropsychiatry and behaviour. American Journal of Human Genetics, 65(3), 593-598. Seif, I. De Maeyer, E. (1999). Knockout corner: Knockout mice for monoamine oxidase A. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 12, 241-243. Shih, J. C., Chen, K., Ridd, M. J. (1999). Monoamine Oxidase: from genes to behaviour. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 11, 197-217. Siever, L. J. (2008). Neurobiology of Aggression and Violence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 429-442. Vatiello, B., Stoff, D. M. (1997). Subtypes of aggression and their relevance to child psychiatry. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 307-315. Viding, E. Frith, U. (2006). Genes for susceptibility to violence lurk in the brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States, 103(16), 6085-6086. Volavka, J., Bilder, R. J., Nolan, K. (2004). Catecholamines and aggression: The role of COMT and MAO polymorphism. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1036, 393-398.

The Rise of Materialism Exposed in Winter of Our Discontent :: Winter Our Discontent

The Rise of Materialism Exposed in Winter of Our Discontent John Steinbeck showed alarm and disapproval to the rise of materialism and the post-World War 2, capitalistic morals found in America during the 1960's. These views were expressed through various characters in his novel The Winter of Our Discontent . This book dealt with the downward spiral of a good man, Ethan Allen Hawley. Pressured on all sides by influences once considered immoral, but now accepted in the 1960's, Ethan, a grocery store clerk from a family of sea captains and wealthy businessmen, "...traded a habit of conduct and attitude for comfort and dignity and a cushion of security" (257). Ethan's son Allen embodies the ideals of the up and coming generation in the 1960's. Growing up in the age of the supermarkets, game show scandals, and fixed traffic tickets, Allen's view of "Something for nothing. Wealth without effort" (91) represented the exact opposite that of his father. Ethan, a man perhaps too concerned with the past, was a character Steinbeck used to speak his voice. Ethan was a man accustomed to honesty, good business, and respect. Allen lived in a world much different than that of Ethan. Allen was raised thinking that being dishonest, immoral, and underhanded was accepted. "Everybody does it. It's the way the cooky crumbles." (353), Allen said when confronted by his father about plagiarizing famous speeches for the "I Love America Contest". The only real opposition came when a person got caught. It almost seemed as if society allowed these illegal actions as long as the person(s) evaded punishment. The only reason Allen seemed upset was because he got caught, not because what he had done was wrong. Steinbeck seemed to show that he felt family history to be very important. Ethan showed great persistence in asking Mr. Baker about the sinking of the Belle-Adair , which Ethan's predecessors felt to have been purposefully burned by the Baker family for the insurance money. Ethan's primary motivation to make a few immoral decisions came from internal pressure he felt to live up to the name of Hawley. He seemed very self-conscience and maybe even ashamed of the fact that he was a lowly grocery clerk, in a foreign owned store, which his family had once owned. Ethan began to hate Mr. Baker when he discovered that the Baker family had used the Hawley's trust in them to gain more land in New Baytown by giving bad investment tips.

Charles Dickens Great Expectations Essays -- Charles Dickens Great Ex

Charles Dickens' Great Expectations â€Å"Great Expectations† is set in early Victorian England and was written by Charles Dickens in 1860. It is written as a first-person narrative with Pip as an older man telling his life’s story. I will be looking at how his extremely strict upbringing affected how he behaved in later life. The title â€Å"Great Expectations† shows an indication of the change in Pips fortunes throughout the story; from a poor family living in the country with a trade of being a blacksmith, to living a luxurious life as a Gentleman in London. The period of the novel was a time of change as England was expanding worldwide and becoming a wealthy world power. The economy was changing from mainly agricultural to industrial. It was a time when there was a very wide gap between the rich and the poor as the rich enjoyed great privileges and the poor led a life near to slavery. The novel provides an insight into both country life and city life where the only advantages that the poor have in the countryside is a clean environment. The book begins with Pip meeting a runaway convict in the graveyard where his mother, father and younger brothers are buried on the marshes. The convict threatens Pip and terrifies him in order to get help from him. At first he says, â€Å"Keep still, you little devil, or I’ll cut your throat!† and this frightens Pip as he describes him as â€Å"fearful†. Pip then pleads with the convict and says â€Å"Oh! Don’t cut my throat, sir.† â€Å"Pray don’t do it, sir.† which conveys to the reader that Pip is very afraid of him. The convict treats Pip in this violent manner because in the Victorian era prisoners were kept in rotten hulks in Nepoleonic wars and treated worse than animals. This explains... ... Miss Havisham has a strong impact on Pip’s adult life too because she leads him to believe that she is the one who is providing him with an income for his new life in London. Her attitude towards Pip is based on her hatred of men as a result of being jilted on her wedding day. Pip even calls her â€Å"the fairy godmother who has changed me† as he assumes that all his good fortune is as a result of Miss Havisham’s generosity. It is only when it is too late however, that Miss Havisham realises what she has done to Pip and how cruel she has been to him. She regrets taking out her anger of men towards Pip and using Estella to break his heart. In conclusion, there are many characters within the novel who have an impact on Pip’s journey to adulthood and the story illustrates how both good and bad influences and experiences affected the person that Pip became. Charles Dickens' Great Expectations Essays -- Charles Dickens Great Ex Charles Dickens' Great Expectations â€Å"Great Expectations† is set in early Victorian England and was written by Charles Dickens in 1860. It is written as a first-person narrative with Pip as an older man telling his life’s story. I will be looking at how his extremely strict upbringing affected how he behaved in later life. The title â€Å"Great Expectations† shows an indication of the change in Pips fortunes throughout the story; from a poor family living in the country with a trade of being a blacksmith, to living a luxurious life as a Gentleman in London. The period of the novel was a time of change as England was expanding worldwide and becoming a wealthy world power. The economy was changing from mainly agricultural to industrial. It was a time when there was a very wide gap between the rich and the poor as the rich enjoyed great privileges and the poor led a life near to slavery. The novel provides an insight into both country life and city life where the only advantages that the poor have in the countryside is a clean environment. The book begins with Pip meeting a runaway convict in the graveyard where his mother, father and younger brothers are buried on the marshes. The convict threatens Pip and terrifies him in order to get help from him. At first he says, â€Å"Keep still, you little devil, or I’ll cut your throat!† and this frightens Pip as he describes him as â€Å"fearful†. Pip then pleads with the convict and says â€Å"Oh! Don’t cut my throat, sir.† â€Å"Pray don’t do it, sir.† which conveys to the reader that Pip is very afraid of him. The convict treats Pip in this violent manner because in the Victorian era prisoners were kept in rotten hulks in Nepoleonic wars and treated worse than animals. This explains... ... Miss Havisham has a strong impact on Pip’s adult life too because she leads him to believe that she is the one who is providing him with an income for his new life in London. Her attitude towards Pip is based on her hatred of men as a result of being jilted on her wedding day. Pip even calls her â€Å"the fairy godmother who has changed me† as he assumes that all his good fortune is as a result of Miss Havisham’s generosity. It is only when it is too late however, that Miss Havisham realises what she has done to Pip and how cruel she has been to him. She regrets taking out her anger of men towards Pip and using Estella to break his heart. In conclusion, there are many characters within the novel who have an impact on Pip’s journey to adulthood and the story illustrates how both good and bad influences and experiences affected the person that Pip became.

Project management and strategic planning Essay

Question: Language style: English (U.K.).   Write strategic planning and implementation steps involved in any project within IT department. Mention the Total quality management steps followed. What are the problems faced? Which problem solving and decision making methods would you suggest to be utilized? Explain. References: Any 2 Sources from the Internet, or Textbooks or journals. An organisation’s IT Strategic planning should combine some amount of tactical planning.   An IT department would require a strategic planning policy to ensure that the staff members and students can use the network on the campus as and when required.   As per the university requirements, all the schools should have a functional IT system, with certain criteria and specifications.   The IT planning would also help the school to share and receive technology from other schools and in this way be of immense help to the students. An IT Department should form a part and parcel of the education policy and processes of the educational institute.   It should be considered as a very important educational and information tool, for the students and staff members.   Let us now look at the actual strategic planning process and how it can be implemented in an educational institute. Strategic Planning is a process of making important decisions in the organisation so that a link between the present and the future trends is formed, choosing the organization’s goals, establishing the policies needed to meet specific objectives and recognising the means of assuring that policies are implemented in an appropriate manner. In a nutshell strategic plans are the â€Å"action plans† (Majdà ºchovà ¡, 2003 & Strategic Initiatives, 2007). STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESS: Considering an example of a Management institute with special reference to the project to be carried out in the IT department, the following detailing a manager in the unit will have to accomplish and organize (ICFAI). A Manager who is responsible for strategic planning would convert the intentions or objectives of the organisation concrete and measurable strategic plans, policies and budget allocations (Majdà ºchovà ¡, 2003 & Strategic Initiatives, 2007). Step one: Defining the mission of the organization Based on the above work assignments, companies change their mission over a period of time to reflect changes in the external environment. The IT unit should address three important issues: What is the business supposed to do? Who are the customers? What goods or services does it offer? An IT department targets the various problems and issues, which are normally faced in a laboratory system of an organisation.   The IT department would provide services to the staff and the students and not merely provide goods alone to the audiences mentioned above (Kotler, 1999). Step two: Drawing up organizational objectives The strategic planning process in an IT department will broadly comprise of the following main objectives to be achieved.   This would help to determine the means of accomplishing the mission: – Students online exams / reports / marks, Laptop management (Wi-Fi connection), Internet control, LAN Connections, PC Maintenance, AMC – annual maintenance contract, Software and hardware troubleshooting, UPS, Vendor management, Requisition and procurement of PCs, UPS etc, Intranet management, ERP package connectivity, and Server support  Ã‚   (Kotler, 1999 & ICFAI) Step three: Assessing and Analysing SWOT The mangers need to analyse thoroughly the organisation’s current situation in order to develop an effective strategy to gain a competitive edge: – Availability of KRA’s Availability of E-commerce technologies and processes Availability of skills in management of the supply chain or the vendor Management of Proprietary technology, superior technological skills, IP, Patents, and the issues concerned with them (Kotler, 1999 & ICFAI) Step four: Formulating strategy Michael Porter has described three strategies which can help a firm / unit to gain competitive edge over others. Overall Cost Leadership: An IT firm has to consider the capital investment and access to it, the engineering skills required, intense supervision of labour, products designed for ease in manufacture, etc in order to achieve the its objectives (Kotler, 1999). Differentiation: The IT department may differentiate its products and services into technical and engineering support, strong capability in identifying the LAN, vendors, ERP, Wi-Fi, Internet, skills of the staff members needed, Intranet, etc (Kotler, 1999). Focus: All the above mentioned policies should be directed towards meeting the strategic target of fulfilling the staff’s and the student’s requirements (Kotler, 1999). Step five: Implementing strategy According to McKinsey et al, the best-managed companies exhibit the following 7 elements, known as â€Å"McKinsey 7-S framework for business success†. These include strategy, structure, and systems (known as ‘hardware to success†); and style, skills, staff and shared values (known as â€Å"software to success†) (Kotler, 1999 & ICFAI). In an IT department, style refers to the common ways of thinking and behaving of the staff members.   Skills refer to the unique method of handling problems experienced by the organization, especially using creative solutions.   Staffing is the process of hiring, training and allocating the work by the department.   Shared values refer to the common guiding values shared by the staff members (ICFAI). During the implementation, the manager should constantly monitor the technology, staff, incentives/reward system, decision-making processes, structures and functions (ICFAI). IMPLEMENTING TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT This involves selecting the right staff members and using ensuring that the services are of high quality.   The process of TQM is continuous in the organisation so that quality of the organisation would improve (through having appropriate processes, products and services).   Feedback regarding customer satisfaction is gained, and accordingly improvements are made.   The company needs to gain an insight of how the user would be using the product.   Any shortcoming should be identified and modified, as and when needed.   Some of the steps in TQM include: – Studying the current quality situation Defining the quality needs Planning for a quality control program initiated by the managers Having structures, functions and strategies for implementing the quality program Allocating and obtaining the resources Monitoring and evaluation of the quality control program (Hashmi, 2000) PROBLEMS FACED: The IT department may face several major problems in cases of IT resource troubleshooting, logistics management, customer satisfaction, changes in the vision of the organisation, leadership problems, incompetent human resources, adoption of new technologies, managing the IP, obsolete facilities, etc (ICFAI). One of the major problems faced by the organisation previously, was regarding the presence of viruses in various network systems.   This seemed a threat to the security of the network.   The organisation had to develop a policy to prevent entry and spread of such virus on its network system.   This ensured that all external connections including CD’s, pen drives, removable discs, etc, were thoroughly scanned so that any virus threat would be contained.   The users were also informed of the security measures that had to be followed whilst using the network.   A strong firewall was installed to ensure that all data entering and existing the network was thoroughly monitored.   In this way, the IT department effectively handled virus threats. A study was conducted in the Institute’s IT Department to determine the effectiveness and the efficiency of the IT department’s network system.   More than 100 individuals were interviewed, which included 80 students and 20 teachers.   It was found that when a definite plan was introduced since 2004, the quality of services provided by the IT department improved drastically.   About 75 % of the staff members and 65 % of the students agreed to this.   The IT personnel are conducting quality checks at various levels to ensure that the services are effective and can enable the organisation to achieve its goals. Services Provided Percent of Staff who felt that the services were good Percent of Staff who felt that the services were satisfactory Percent of Staff who felt that the services were poor Comments Internet 75 21 4 Internet services are very good with fast connectivity and lightning speeds Intranet 50 35 15 Intranet exists, but not updated regularly Messenger 25 13 63 Not utilised very often during instruction Mail 65 26 9 Utilised very frequently and beneficial to all the faculty members and students.   Each staff and student is given their own id and password Library 78 12 10 Services are limited (no of databases subscribed) College Database 50 24 26 Not updated for long Teleconference system 56 25 19 Although, the system is effective and very useful, frequent disruptions occur PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION MAKING METHODS: Group Decision making method may be useful in large and complex departments, as the decision adopted seem to be better. Delphi group technique brings a panel of experts together in order to identify the problem and develop solutions for them.   Responses are collected and averaged by the people coordinating the group. It is utilised more often to immediately solve acute problems faced by the unit.   Such problems are time consuming and expensive to solve.   Interacting groups is the most common form of group decision making, in which the members openly discuss the problem, develop ideas, argue about each of them, and choose the best alternative. Decision Tree is a complex instrument that helps the decision-maker to consider various alternative courses needed to solve the problem and select the most appropriate alternative. The decision-maker can implement and monitor the alternative (Kotler, 1999 & ICFAI).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Overall, I do feel that from the efforts of the management of the organisation and from the IT department itself, an effective network system has been develop which is very useful for the students and the staff members.   This educational tool helps in education, instruction, and research and even in providing information to the general public.   Regular feedback should be taken from the users, administrators, etc, in order to determine if any modification is required for the IT System, and effectively introduced into the IT strategic plan.   Over, the last four years, incorporation of an IT plan has ensured a faster network, security, greater access, and increased support.   The IT department has also certain trouble shooting devices in place to handle any situation.   This has helped the organisation to achieve its objectives. References: Hashmi, K. (2000), Introduction and Implementation of Total Quality Management (TQM), [Online], Available: http://www.isixsigma.com/library/content/c031008a.asp, [Accessed: 2007, November 23]. ICFAI – Introduction to management, ICFAI Center for Management research. ICFAI – Project Management, ICFAI publication of management research.    Kotler, P. (1999), â€Å"Marketing Management: the Millennium edition,† 10th ed, Prentice Hall. Majdà ºchovà ¡, H. (2003), â€Å"Strategic Management For The Nonprofit Organizations†, Electronic Library of Scientific Literature, vol. 51, no. 3. http://www.sav.sk/journals/ekoncas/ekon2003_07.htm   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Strategic Initiatives – Leading Transformative Change†, [Online], Available: http://www.strategicinitiatives.com/, [Accessed: 2007, November 23]. The University of Colorado at Boulder (2002). â€Å"2002 Information Technology Strategic Planning Report.† [Online], Available: http://www.colorado.edu/ITplan/2002itsp.pdf, [Accessed: 2007, November 23]. The University of Colorado at Boulder (2002). 2002 IT Strategic Vision, [Online], Available: http://www.colorado.edu/ITplan/vision.pdf, [Accessed: 2007, November 23]. The University of Colorado at Boulder (2002). Current Situation (Trends), [Online], Available: http://www.colorado.edu/ITplan/trends.pdf, [Accessed: 2007, November

Court Issues

The criminal justice system has changed tremendously over the decades and so has society. It is important that the court system make changes to keep up with the times. There are parts of the court system that need to be identified to have these changes occur. One of these areas is the way courts are managed including their problems and resolutions. A new trend that has emerged is victims’ rights. Victims can now intervene in the cases before sentencing. In the future, courts could lose cases to arbitration and mediation also known as the private sector of the courts. Understanding these changes and issues are important so that the courts can correspond with the trends as they occur. The courts are an important piece of the justice system. In order to meet the domains of the criminal justice system the courts evolve with the new processes and trends as they happen. Below the paragraphs will analyze and explore future management issues dealing with technological innovations and how the new technology is impacting the courts. Along with how victims’ rights are impacting the courts. One of the main issues that the courts are facing in the future is the possible division between the private law sector and the courts. The technological innovations also impacts the courts staff and judges. Current and future trends facing the courts and administrators One of the issues facing the court system today is judges are not able to see many cases because of their administrative role. Judges spend the majority of their time â€Å"papering budgets, scheduling cases, supervising employees, and maintaining court records† (Robinson, 2009, pg. 208, para 5). The courthouse employee’s work together getting cases dispensed as quickly as possible. Some of these cases are dismissed before even being seen because of how many cases there are. Many of the minor cases are plea bargained so that the more serious cases can be seen. In doing this the judges and the courts have more time to spend on the very serious cases such as murder cases. The court system has to make adjustments due to the many cases that they have coming through the courts and they would never caught up because of the fact that there are many people having run in with the law enforcement. Another problem that courts are facing today is the imbalance of power. In the courtroom today the prosecutors have more power because there are the ones that decide if there is going to be charges filed against someone. This means that if the prosecutor does not prosecute a case the judge and defense attorney will have no say in the outcome of that case. One former United States Attorney General has stated â€Å"the prosecutor has more control over life, liberty, and reputation than any other person in America† (Robinson, 2009, pg. 209, para 4). The power that the judges have has been reduced because of the changes in sentencing and rules. The mandatory sentencing laws has given prosecutors the increase power of prosecution control over cases and how they are disposed of. With the power that prosecutors have the justice system is being threatened. If the law was still equal the defense attorney would have the resources they need to help the defendant. The defense attorneys have heavy caseloads because they work for the government and their resources are limited that they can access. Issues and trends regarding language interpretation services Throughout the United States individuals rely on the court system to solve issues and controversies in their lives. Language barriers between an individual and the courts cause the process to get delayed because it causes communication and understanding problems. When a witness is on the stand testifying that speaks a different language that interpreters need to understand what the witness is saying so they can communicate their true meaning of their statement. The United States accepts many different immigrants and the way of communicating. One of the fundamental rights that the United States has is to recognize the important reason why immigrants come to the United States, â€Å"in our country’s belief in equal justice for all, but to have equal justice, every victim, every witness must understand what is happening in the courtroom† (Board of Directors, 2007, pg. 3, para 2). With the increasing population of immigrants that do not speak English is making it harder to accommodate for people because the courts have to make sure that the interpreter fully understands the language and can translate what the witness is saying. New York courts employ approximately 300 full and part time court interpreters, and 1,200 interpreters on the per diem bases, to provide services in over 100 languages† (Board of Directors, 2007, pg. 4, para 2). The multi-faceted type of communication makes it harder for interpreters in the courtrooms because of the words meaning different things in the different cultures in the Un ited States. An interpreter of the courts also needs to understand legal terminology and procedures of the cultural content that impacts all individuals involved in the case. Interpreters will succeed in their jobs if they can convey what the speaker is meaning to say without altering the expression or tone of the speaker. There are three types of interpreting, which are; consecutive, simultaneous, and sight. Consecutive interpreting is when the interpreter waits for a group of words to be spoken before they interpret what was said. Simultaneous is when the interpreter listens and interprets in a different language at the same time. The last is sight and this is when interpreters read one language and translates it aloud in another. Language interpretation services is a permanent component in the criminal justice system so that the constitutional rights requirements are meet for all individuals. Courts are now required to appoint an interpreter when defendants and witnesses do not speak English in a case. Impact that victim rights laws have on court proceedings (past, present, future) Thirty years ago, victims’ rights did not exist. The victims were not notified about the courts processing or if the case was dropped and the defendant was released. Today, every state has an extensive body of basic rights and protections for victims within its statutory code† (Office for Victims of Crime, 2013). Activists discussed amending the Constitution of the United States to recognize victims’ rights statutes in the criminal justice proceedings. It was not until 1982 that a President’s Task Force on victims of crime suggested for the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution to be amended so that victims are included in the judicial proceedings. California was the first state to adopt the constitutional amendment in 1982 and by the end of the 21 century 49 states passed the victims’ Bill of Rights and this gave victims benefits and options in their case. Two presidents supported the amendment of the constitution at the end of the 21st century. The amendment gave victims the right to receive information, protection, and restitution from the offender. This also gave the victim the right to express their views on sentencing, bail, and parole. Victims’ rights has come a long way sense the early 1970’s and will continue to change as it needs too. There are several issues facing the courts and courts administrators system today. The analysis above discussed these issues and give information to support the findings. The information of future management issues and trends regarding language interpretation was discussed in the analysis. The past, present, and future impact of victims’ rights laws on the court proceeding were discussed in detail.