Functions and Elements of Self Organising Networks

Functions and Elements of Self Organising Networks CHAPTER 1 In this chapter I will be discussing about the main functions of SON, its components, elements and how does it atomizes the whole LTE network infrastructure. I have organised this chapter in the following way and will explain each of the component respectively. OAM Automatic Configuration Features Neighbour Relation Automatic Neighbour Relation management Connectivity Management Self Test Automatic Inventory So, lets get started with the detain explanation, description and working of the OAM system first. 1OAM (Operation, Administration and Management) 1.1Introduction OAM stands for Operation, Administration and Management systems. As we have discussed in the earlier chapters that most of the network operations today is controlled and managed by a central entity which is known as the OAM system. Mainly in a centralized system architecture all the Self-Configuration, Self-Optimization and Self-Healing operations are controlled through the OAM system. In the next paragraph a brief description of what functions does the Operation, Administration and Management system take care of is explained. Operations system deals in both the administration and management systems. It is basically a centralized control structure which keeps coordination between both the other systems. Administration system as it stands control all the administrative tasks like networks design, assignment of addresses, keeping network up to date and other administrative functions. And lastly the Maintenance system maintains and keeps the network running through keeping check of all the elements, executing appropriate diagnostic functions, monitoring network and resetting the components or whole network if required. All these components work parallel to keep the network in operational state. 1.2Architecture For any network to operate optimally it is very necessary to keep check on all the elements. The operator of network should have a system through which he can make sure that there is no fault and network is running normally. In the figure 1.1 below a high level OAM architecture architecture is represented. OAM Architecture Fig1.1 As it is clear through fig 1.1 that OAM has further devided management layers and provided dedicated servers to each management layer to deal with its functions. All the management servers serves their corresponding nodes layer by layer to perform the management tasks. Network protocols has been defined at each interface onto the Network Element or end user for execution of effortless management functions. Though the architecture diagram we can conclude two main logical functions that devides the OAM according to their functions and roles. These functions are given below, Network Management function Element Management function Mainly in the network managements systems, OAM is addressed as the entity which controls, maintains and configures the network. The term OAM is used in the 3GPP documentation for the network management functions. As five main sub-functions of Network Management Systems are derived from the main functions of OAM and hence NMS is also reffered as the OAM systems in many contexts. OAM when demand lot of provisonal functions then it is known as the OAMP, P stands for provision in this situation. The functional elements of Network Management System is given in the figure 1.2 below. Fig 1.2 In the next part I will be discussing two very important management functions related to the OAM architecture and those are as follows, 1.3Element Management System (EMS) As we know network element is an entity composed of the physical hardware. Processes and executions are performed on those physical devices to provide service the users. Therefore, a management technique to manage these elements of the network is known as the Element Management System. The management system a very broad topic but I will keep focus on the main components which integrates with the SON technique for the optimization of cellular networks. As we can see in the fig 1.1 the Network management system collects all the data from EMS and EMS gathers all useful measurements for the NE respectively. The difference is NMS mainly execute the aggregated measurements from NEs to accomplish required functions but EMS works on individual NE at a time. Below is the high-level architecture of the EMS and the components it interacts with. Fig 1.2 Furthermore, I would give a brief description of the components shown in the fig 1.2 above. The EMS connects to the NMS server to provide all the collected and aggregated information or measurement from the network elements. NMS makes decisions based on these collected data from EMS. The client is used to show or present the data to user with a user friendly graphic user interface. The operator can login through the client to configure and maintain network when needed. The database function is to store all the usable measurements and information. These measurements are used when a fault occurs in the Network Element. Evaluating and comparing the network performances with these measurements give a complete sight of what might be causing the errors in the network. And the last component which is the Network Element is same we have discussed earlier, a physical device used to execute all the processes and functions. A question that arises here is that the network elements can be managed and configured through accessing the devices itself so why do we need a central Element Management System? Therefore, the need of this management function is explained as follows. 1.3.1Requirement of EMS Network are getting very complex as new functionalities and services are added very frequently. And with that, new vendors and service providers are introducing themselves in market. As the network size is enhancing the operations at the network element end is also increasing. This operation management demands high cost and effort. Therefore, to minimize the cost, effort and a centralized solution to manage the networks were provided by the 3GPP. An appropriate and user-friendly interface is very vital to perform and manage managerial tasks with ease. Some main issues which the operators of telecom companies were facing are described in the next paragraph. Firstly, Due to the development of fresh network elements and services there was a need to provision diverse elements from different vendors. For example, even in a single network GSM, UMTS and LTE can work side by side therefore a management system was required which can gather all the data from all the network elements. Secondly, the complexity issues were raising as of now many multiple functionalities are merging into one single functionality which makes the network complex. And lastly but the most important is the cost. The cost associated in dealing with each element individually was very high, therefore to manage complete network and its services remotely and through a central entity which has all the data and measurements from all the network elements can reduce huge costs. Progressing through EMS now I will explain the functions and services EMS provides to the network and how it interacts with its upper layer that is the Network Management System. 1.3.2Functions of EMS Element Management System basically manages the base stations that is eNodeBs in the LTE network architecture in accordance with SON. The main functions which EMS features while managing the network elements are given below. 1.3.2.1Provisioning and Installation of NE When a base station that is eNodeB is connected to a power station but not yet configured and basic setup is not initiated, eNodeBs at this point needs to connect to the network to perform basic functions. So, the Self-Configuration function of SON is initiated to make a connection, eNodeB for connectivity requires an IP-address and OAM support to start functionating. For obtaining basic configuration and parameter settings the eNodeB connects to the OAM system. Now the EMS element in the OAM must provision, support and provide these basic configuration settings to the eNodeB. The EMS checks is they can provide the service base station is asking for. The inventory management server is checked for this purpose. Once the resources are available and identified the configurations are uploaded onto the base stations and correct parameters are set up. At this point the network elements are ready to be interconnected with the network and start functioning. This technique is used in the Self-Configuration function of SON for the basic connectivity with the network. Furthermore, this function of EMS also maintains the backup and restore points for the network element. Downloading, installing the patches and newly updated software on the eNodeBs are handled by the EM system too. The inventory system database in the EM system contains all the required parameter settings used by the eNodeBs for the self-configuration and auto-connectivity once powered on. Every element in the modern telecom services are automated through SON and a technician is only needed when something couldnt be resolved automatically. At that point the engineer or operator just login through the EMS graphical user interface and handles all the faults and errors with ease. 1.3.2.2Managing User terminals and maintaining QOS In a wide scale network, there are thousand of base stations and thousands of user-equipment are connected to these base stations. Therefore, to manage this big network is not easy at the operators end. The capital expenditure to deploy base stations and then the operational expenditure to maintain each single base station requires huge amount of cost and with cost excessive human effort is required to maintain base stations. Therefore, EM system manages these user terminals by gathering the statistics of all the users cell through cell and saves these measurements into the database. So, the message status between the base station and UE are attained in the shape of statistical reports. The vital data collected in these statistics are given below, All the successful calls. All the failed calls. Dropped calls. Successful HOs. Failed HOs. The traffic capacity that is throughput. By gaining all these important statistics from the network the EM system analyzes and makes appropriate decisions when needed. Not only this but EMS uses these measurements to maintain the Quality of Service too. 1.3.2.3Network Support Network support mainly aims in the activities related to the maintenance of the network. And as discussed earlier operators goal is to decrease the cost as much as they can. As much the network is well managed and well driven the cost will decrease. So, quality of management systems is inversely proportion to the cost. With the cost, there is one more concern that operators are facing and that is the lack of professional technicians. And both concerns can be mitigated through the automatic solutions. Therefore, automatic network systems reduce human intervention and cuts the cost too. And for the support of network automatically EMS functionalities are evolved. Main functionality that EMS provides for the network support are given below. Debugging and resolving software issues such as bugs and errors. EMS provides a method to automatically resolve these errors remotely. All the security statistics are handled by EMS which the network requires to handle and secure vital information and data. All the network faults and issues at the element level are mitigated through the EMS. As Network management system deals with the combined data and information from several network elements. But the EMS takes charge and record of each Element individually. And lastly EMS allows operators to login to the specific node for the purpose of upgradation or changing parameters. The operator does not have to go physically to the base station and login through its internal interface. 1.3.2.4Monitoring of Networks The monitoring of networks is mainly done on the Network Management System but some of its function is executed on the EMS. EMS supports the NMS through some of its functionalities for the monitoring and control. First, we need to understand that monitoring of networks is executed on NMS and portions of these functions are performed on the EMS level. The EMS layer is below the NMS layer and therefore it provides major feeds to the layers above it. The monitoring systems main tasks which optimizes the network are given in the figure 1.3 below. Fig 1.3 The 3GPP defines standards of OAM with very classified specification. And it is very clear that the OAM specification gives ease in implementing the management system for the network. There are other network management specifications like TMF but the 3GPP specification about the OAM is very broad and revolves around some specific function or technology. The specifications, standards, specifications and how does 3GPP uses SON to optimize networks are explained in the last chapter of this paper that is 3GPP specifications and its interaction with SON. 1.4Network Management System (NMS) The network management system in the OAM architecture is capable of managing the complete network in a combined method that is, managing of radio transmissions, core networks and the base stations. NMS manages all these entities on one single platform. And due to the capability of managing everything on one single node the cost and human effort is decreased exponentially. There is a term used in the management system called FCPS which stands for Fault, Configuration, Performance and Security Management. And this function works on all the layers of the OAM model. On every layer, it has different function but the general explanation of FCPS is explained in the last portion of this topic. Basically, how NMS functions is explained in the example below, Lets consider there is a fault detected on the NE. Because whenever an event occurs network element generates a log which notifies EMS of the event occurrence. EMS would collect these statistics from the NE. Now NMS responsibility is to tackle the issue and take corrective measures. To accomplish these goals NMS correlates the statistics from different NE and different events, this technique helps the NMS to discover the issue or fault by comparing different statistics. A real-time example of NMS working could be of a disconnection scenario between a base station and the media gateway. Logs and stats screening the connection lost will be generated on the elements of both base stations and the MGW. As base station and MGW are two different network elements and EMS always record the stats of specific network element individually. So, it might collect the stats from the base station or the MGW, but the Network Management System at this point records data from both the elements and then correlate them. Therefore, in the scenarios defined above the stats and logs from base station and MGW can be analyzed together which makes the work on NMS level easy to find the actual problem in the network. And when the problem is diagnosed NMS takes the proper corrective measure to mitigate the issue which EMS can not do by just gathering the logs of one network element. This is a case specific function of how NMS tackles the issues. The other functions and activities NMS performs to optimize the network are given in the next section. 1.4.1Activities performed by NMS All the main activities that the NMS performs prior to any maintenance instructions or corrective measures are given below. Learn about all the elements available in the network. It works in two ways, manual discovery which is done by the operator and the second is automatic element discovery. In an auto discovery mode, this management system automatically discovers and identifies all the network elements and assign IPs to the particular element which requires it. The manual discovery is executed by the operator and manage the network elements that is assign IP addresses to the elements and discover all the elements in the network through the application menu. Gathering all the faulty data. The reason this activity is scheduled to be executed after the network elements discovery is to associate the faulty information with the specific element and components which are causing the error. In the NMS software, all the discovered elements form a tree type structure and hence associating the correct statistics with the corresponding element assists in debugging the fault. Collecting all the performance statistics and data. The faulty data discussed above is sent to the NMS only when they arise but on the other hand the performance logs and stats are stored in the files of network element itself. And these stats are downloaded on the NMS from the NE at the periodic intervals. User Authentications. All the internal user in the NMS needs to be authenticated for the security reasons. There are commands in NMS which can collapse the vital network components which can cause affect on whole network therefore, robust security needs to be implemented on the NMS. Collecting other configurations and data. The last activity executed by the NMS prior to start managing and maintenance of the networkall the other statistics and configurations in the element required in the NMS to execute any function is also collected from the NE. So, when all the elements are discovered and prerequisite activities have been executed successfully the NMS is the all set for the management and maintenance tasks of the network. These functions, maintenance, corrective measures, fault detection etc. are performed by analyzing the earlier collected data from the NE. Main functions of the NMS includes outlining the flow of information, provisioning of network, troubleshooting, configured elements maintenance, making appropriate decisions for the optimal utilization of resources etc. The problem which sometimes arises is the parameter or configuration changes in the network elements. These changes must be updated on the NMS so that it can find an appropriate solution when required. Therefore, network elements are rediscovered at periodic intervals so that the most current statistics and data could be known to the EMS. The next section would comprise of the NMS general architecture and the components which reside in the NMS. Description and explanation of these components are also given in the section below. 1.4.2NMS Architecture

Autonomy Vs. Paternalism In Mental Health Treatment Essay -- essays re

Autonomy Vs. Paternalism In Mental Health Treatment The assignment for this Ethics class was to review Mr. Jacob's treatment, as described by the New York State Commission on Quality of Care for the Mentally disabled (1994). The class was further asked to comment on the major issues for each of the three perspectives. The agencies, family and review board were to be included. This student will begin with a fourth perspective; that of Mr. Gordon. In the Matter of Jacob Gordon (1994), is the story of the last eight years of a psychiatrically disabled man's life. Mr. Gordon appeared to vacillate between striving for autonomy and accepting the support of his family. Unfortunately, it appeared by this account that the families support was not synonymous with autonomy. It did not appear that Mr. Gordon had ever desired or sought agency intervention for himself. Mr. Gordon's association with the mental health system appeared to be marked by power and control issues. "Consumers/ex-patients often report a feeling of "invisibility"; they sense that their views and desires do not matter (Carling, 1995, p.79 )." The commission's report (1995) spoke of several incidences where Mr. Gordon eluded to his desire for autonomy. Mr. Gordon did not wish to live in a supervised setting. Mr. Gordon did not wish to attend group day treatment settings. Mr. Gordon did not wish to use medication in the treatment of his mental health disorder. Without medication his behavior was deemed unacceptable and did not permit him the opportunity to have any of these choices. "Choice is a right-not a privilege to be afforded by good behavior (Penny, 1994, p. 29)." Mr. Gordon's right of choice was limited even though he lived in his apartment independently. The condition of his apartment was scrutinized. His medication was closely monitored; sometimes to the degree that he was directed to leave his home to receive medication that was given to him crushed, in an attempt to insure it's ingestion. "Even peoples liberties in a highly controlled board and care home may be scarcely greater than in a hospital ward (Rubenstien, 1994, p.54)." In Mr. Gordon's case even within the sanctity of his own home, his liberties were scarcely greater than in a hospital ward. Other than his autonomy the second issue for Mr. Gordon appears to be the need for safety and suppor... ... on Quality of Care for the Mentally Disabled. New York State Commission on Quality of Care for the Mentally Disabled. A Pamphlet. What is The Commission? New York: Commission on Quality of Care for the Mentally Disabled. Corey, G., Corey, M.S., Callanan, P. (1993). Issues and Ethics in the Helping Professions. (4th ed.). California: Brook/Cole Publishing Co. Penny, D.J. (1994). Choice, common sense, and responsibility: the systems obligations to recipients. In C. J Sundram (Ed.), Choice & Responsibility (pp. 29-32). New York: NYS Commission on Quality of Care for the Mentally Disabled. Rooney, R. (1992). The ethical foundation for work with involuntary clients. Strategies for Work with Involuntary Clients. (pp. 53-74). New York: Columbia University Press. Sundram, C.J. (1994). A framework of thinking about choice and responsibility. In C. J. Sundram (Ed.), Choice & Responsibility (pp. 3-16). New York: NYS Commission on Quality of Care for the Mentally Disabled. Surles, R.C. (1994). Free choice, informed choice, and dangerous choices. In C.J. Sundram (Ed.), Choice & Responsibility (pp. 17-24). New York: NYS Commission on Quality of Care for the Mentally Disabled.

The Citizens of Brave New World Essay -- Literary Analysis

In 1932, Aldous Huxley wrote a book entitled Brave New World. It was an image of a dystopian future where pleasure and science were carefully combined to control the average citizen. The book was received with a variety of opinions ranging from impressed to scandalized. Seventeen years later, George Orwell published Nineteen Eighty-Four, a novel that was yet another detailed picture of what a dystopian future might look like. While similar in its depiction of what can happen when ordinary people no longer have any power, Orwell’s book took a very different look as to how that power would be taken away. In 1984, the government uses peoples’ fear and lack of knowledge to make them submissive. When the novel was published in 1949, it too was met with a mix of both praise and criticism. Both of these narratives present the ideas of lack of individual freedom, the loss of history and truth, and the degradation of inter-personal relationships. The books both include these the mes, but they present them in exceptionally dissimilar ways. At the advent of their publication, both novels, depending on the readers’ opinion, were considered accurate pictures of what the future of society could be. However, with the passing of time, Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World has become the most accurate representation of our societies’ departure from the family unit, personal freedom, and informational veracity. The idea that Brave New World has proven true to prediction is apparent in the rapid change taking place in our society today. Before that change can be examined, however, the differences between the two novels must be discussed. One important factor of difference are the time periods in which the two books were written. George Orwell wrote 1984 ... ...o. Inc, 2.Feb.2011. Web. 9.Apr.2012. . â€Å"Brave New World -Themes, Motifs, and Symbols.† Spark Notes, n.d. Web. 9.Apr.2012. . Herr, Norman. â€Å"Television & Health.† The Sourcebook for Teaching Science. California Stat University, n.d. Web. 9.Apr.2012. . â€Å"When Did the Great Depression Start and End?† wanttoknowit.com, n.d. Web. 9.Apr.2012. . Wilde, Robert. â€Å"When did World War 2 end?† About.com. The New York Times Company, n.d. Web. 9.Apr.2012. . Aldous, Huxley. Brave New World. New York: Harper & Row, 1932. Print. Orwell, George. Nineteen Eighty-Four.

Essay on Symbols and Symbolism in Moby Dick :: Moby Dick Essays

"He piled upon the whale's white hump the sum of all the general rage and hate felt by his whole race from Adam down; and then, as if his chest had been a mortar, he burst his hot heart's shell upon it." Such was Melville's description of Captain Ahab. The symbolism that this statement suggests, along with many other instances of symbolism, are incorporated into Moby Dick. Although the crew knew that Ahab was obsessed with vengeance and wasn't interested in killing Moby Dick for whale oil, they still felt obligated to follow his orders. They knew that the rule book said that if a captain went against his contract due to personal feelings, they were obliged to wrest command from him. This idea symbolizes the emotional attachment we have to those around us, and it also demonstrates the mixed feelings we have when somebody we respect does something evil. In the end, this emotional attachment destroyed the crew. Starbuck had a golden opportunity to kill Ahab, but for his own salvation, h e undermined the good of the crew and chose to let the Captain live. So, part of the lesson of Moby Dick is not to let sentiment and personal feelings get in the way of our duty. The lack of this lesson among the crew destroyed Ahab and the entire ship's compliment, except for Ishmael. When Captain Ahab stabbed at Moby Dick with the harpoon, he was symbolizing the power that obsession has when a person lets it take over one's mind. Ahab had no chance of killing Moby Dick, yet he engaged in his suicide plan to stab at the whale. This lesson not to let obsession take over your mind is similar to Javert's obsession with justice and imprisoning Valjean in Les Miserables. It shows that a passion with a personal vendetta will ultimately destroy a person, whether it destroys the person physically or mentally. Moby Dick also was a mixed symbol. It seemed clear to the crew of the Pequod that whales were evil and whales were the enemy. Yet, white is a symbol of good, so one could conclude that Moby Dick was a symbol of both good and evil. With Moby Dick killing Ahab, he gave Ahab his just reward from acting out of revenge, which could be interpreted as an act of good. When Moby Dick killed all but one of the crew, it showed that he may be evil, even though he was acting only out of instinct, thinking his life was threatened.

Antigone’s Purpose

Brooks Fridey Antigone’s Purpose In the story of Antigone, originally written by Sophocles, explains the story, of a woman who stands up for her own beliefs against the king. At the time of Sophocles, women had little power and authority. They were expected to listen to their husband, king, or any man that speaks to or asks a woman of something. The story starts up where the story of Oedipus ends, in his death. Trouble and war are about to begin in Thebes, so Antigone travels there to try and stop what may become of her family and country.From my observations, this story can be analyzed in multiple ways, whether it is about the struggles of women, defying the higher power, or responding to the will of the gods. It is said that the royal family of Thebes is cursed to endure suffering, pain, death and loss. Antigone is aware of her family’s fate, but is ready to change her possible destiny for herself and her family. In Thebes, the members of the royal family are either k illing themselves or are being murdered. Antigone is torn by this and decides she must go to Thebes to fix this.She got word that her brothers, Polyneices and Eteocles, were going to fight each other until one was dead. She tried to be there before any fight happened, but was too late, and found out from her sister, that bother brothers were killed during the fight. The king ordered that Eteocles deserved a proper burial, but Polyneices was to not be touched and would not get a burial underground. Antigone asked her sister, Ismene, to help her bury their brother properly, but she refused. It was ordered that anyone who touches the body will be arrested and shall be punished by death.Ismene told Antigone that she cannot bring herself to do it. She feels that her family’s consistently terrible luck and the fact that she’s a woman are quite inhibiting. Antigone was ready to stand up for the women who would not defy men’s authority. She was fine with doing what she needed to herself. Ismene, who is trapped under the influence and power of man, tries to beg Antigone she will be making a mistake and will suffer great consequences. Stating, â€Å"It is a losing battle, fighting Man† (Sophocles). It is obvious throughout the story, that nothing will prevent or slow Antigone from what she is going to do.Not man, nor power, or laws is enough to change her mind. Creon’s reasoning as to why Eteocles gets a burial service and Polyneices is to be left out for the birds, is to him, justified that Eteocles died honorably defending the city, while Polyneices was just a dishonorable exile. This was no real justification to Antigone, and she was going to take matters into her own hands, defying the king. It was soon discovered that Polyneices’ body had been ritually prepared for a burial, so the messenger relayed the news to the king. He ordered that the messenger find who is responsible for this or he will die if he fails.As what seemed , intended the sentry soon found Antigone trying to bury her brother. She was arrested, and taken to Creon. Antigone does not deny her crime, she tells Creon her actions were for justice and obedience to the gods. With all of Antigone’s stubbornness, she continues to still disrespect the king even after she has been caught. She will not give in to the king, disagreeing with any justification he promotes. Creon attempts to shame her for her actions, but this has no real effect on her due to a large amount of pride dignity she has left for herself.Creon feels it is particularly important not to be beaten by a person of the female persuasion. The battle of opposite effect continues with Antigone and Ismene, as she is brought into question as well from a hunch the king has that Ismene is also involved in this crime. She immediately pleads guilty to the accusations, saying she aided in the burial of Polyneices. Antigone is enraged that she would plead guilty to something she had n ot done, but Ismene confronts the fact she will not be able to go on without Antigone alive.It is expressed throughout the story, the importance of obeying the gods. To Antigone, it is not necessary that someone should obey their leader at all times. She believes what Creon declared to happen to her brothers was unfair and that the gods were telling her she needed to bury her brother. Antigone was unapproved to the treatment of women in these times, and that the king must be obeyed in all causes. She believed the gods were the true powers, and bad things would come upon you if you did not cooperate with their requests.When Haemon comes into the story, acknowledged as Antigone’s fiancee, who is the son of Creon, makes it clear why Antigone was even still alive. Although Creon was cruel and often harsh, there was still something or someone holding him back from simply killing her. Haemon told his father it would be wrong to kill Antigone and would bring great mourning to the pe ople of Thebes following her death. He wants Creon to be open to others views, but Creon responds by calling Haemon a woman’s slave for backing up a woman and not his own father.A blind prophet advises Creon that he should properly bury Polyneices and release Antigone. He says if he does not he will greatly anger the gods, and might create his own misfortune for his disobedience. Possibly leading to his own death. As Creon ponders his possibilities and future, he finally decides to release Antigone and bury Polyneices. As he thought he was then making the right decision, he would soon find out what his choice will cause. Antigone knew she didn’t want to keep living in this world of mistreatment and cruelty, and was willing to end her life.Creon did not think she would actually go through anything like suicide, but upon her release, she quickly hung herself and gave herself to the gods. Haemon found out what happened, and enraged, attacked his father, and missed leading to Haemon striking himself with the sword and killing himself. As if the story for Creon could be any more devastating, instantly regretting his choice, is told by a messenger that his wife enrages by Creon’s actions, as well, and killed herself. Creon is left with nothing and no one close to him in his life, and wonders what to do now.This is a story that depicts the power of anyone, especially women. With enough determination and manipulation, anything is possible. Antigone was dealt with an accumulation of anger towards her genders rights, the abuse of power, and being righteous enough to still follow her gods. She is seen as one of the first feminists in this time, and although may have gone to an extreme to defend her honor, clearly made a point to Creon, leaving him with nothing, what neglect of someone’s abilities are and abusing one’s power can do.

African Americans since 1865 Essay

It happens to be common knowledge that throughout history African Americans have been oppressed, segregated, and disregarded as civil human beings. In the dawn of history Africans were regarded as animals and as such they would do the job of animals, however this paper will look at their sacrifices and fights to be treated as equals. The abolishment of slavery brought on a war, not between two countries but a war that divided a country, one that is still spoken of today. The southern or â€Å"rebel† states rose against the President of the United States in retaliation of his and many others view that no man woman or child should be a slave. All people were created equal. Africans in politics Although four million African American slaves were now free they had codes placed against them, the Black Codes restricted the lives and movement of these people. In order to override the codes the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments were drafted and passed. Not only was slavery abolished but all slaves were now citizens and in such race could no longer be used to prevent the vote of a person. Africans now had a voice on who was elected and soon they had African Americans running for government offices. Corbould, C. (2009) Becoming African Americans: Black Public Life in Harlem, 1919-1939 Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA, USA Harlem Renaissance African Americans soon were cast aside again, during the age of imperialism and leading into World War One Africans were struggling to make a life. Some fought in another war, this time not for their freedom but for the freedom from communism alongside their white counterparts. After the war ended blacks started to come together, the Harlem Renaissance was born. King, M. L. Jr. (2010) Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story. Beacon Press. Boston, MA, USA Black power movement 1954 to 1963 America saw a strong struggle for the advancement of civil rights, equality and desegregation. From every day citizens expressing their belief in being equal to their white counterparts to lawyers fighting for the equality all had deserved. These times were pivitol in an unstable America. Not only were there these movements of civil equality and black power but also a war in a far land that many Americans were against at the time. Inventions and impact From writers, inventors and powerful leaders throughout black history there are some that are household names and some that may be forgotten. I plan on taking a look back on those who through oppression continued to strive for better for themselves and for all. African Americans today Not long ago segregation was prominent, civil rights were abused, racism and hate were common. Today we have CEO’s, congressmen and senators, military leaders and the President of the United States who are all African Americans. No longer considered a minority in many’s eyes, African Americans have literally built themselves from slaves to leaders and teachers.

Election Commission in India

A good electoral system is, therefore, the bed rock of genuine representative government. The architects of the Indian constitution attached the highest significance to arzon-dependent electoral machinery for the conduct of elections. For this it was necessary that an independent election commission with its vast paraphernalia should be set-up in country such a commission could ensure fair and free elections of the representatives of the pie at all levels. Articles 324, Dr.Ambedkar contended, â€Å"proposed centralise the election machinery in hands of a single commission, be assisted by regional commissioners working under the supervision direction control of the election commission and not and under e control of the state government as envisaged earlier. † Composition of the Election Commission: Of the four pillars of the Indian constitution, the Election commission is one, the other three being the Supreme Court, the public service commission and the comptroller and Auditor General of India.On the Election commission depends the integrity of election, which truly is the oxygen of democracy. Thus viewed, its independence d impartiality assume critical importance to the country's entire political system. To ensure free and fair and impartial elections, the constitution establishes the Election Commission, a body autonomous in character and free from political orenecutive influence. The commission is an All India body having jurisdiction over, elections to parliament, fate Legislatures, offices of the president and vice-president.The Election Commission consists of the Chief Election Commissioner, and such number of Election Commissioners if any as the president may fix from time to time. The Chief Election Commissioner stands at the apex of the hierarchy of the Election Commission of India. All these commissioners are appointed by the president subject to the provisions of any law enacted by parliament for the purpose. The Chief Election Commissioner ac ts as the chairman of the Election Commission . n case any other Election Commissioner besides him is appointed. The tenure of the Chief Election Commissioner is independent of the executive discretion, for he cannot be removed from his of face except in the like manner and on the like grounds as a judge of the Supreme Court. The conditions of service of the Chief Election Commissioner cannot be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment. The president also promulgated an ordinance amending the Chief Election Commissioner and ther Election Commissioner Act providing for unanimous transaction of business and decisions but in case of differences of opinion among the three members the matter shall be decided â€Å"according to the opinion of the majority. † The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioner Act, 1991 as existed before the issue of ordinance was weighed in favour of the chief election commissioner on decision making in case of differences among the members of the commission. The constitution provides for a single member or multimember Election Commission.Where there is more than one I members the CEC acts as its chairman. The committee on Electoral Reforms has made certain recommendations with regard to the items and conditions of service Of the Chief Election Commissioner and the other Election Commissioners. After having studied those recommendations the chief Election Commissioners of India conditions of service rules 1972 were amended with introspective, effect from 1st January 1986. The Chief Election Commissioner of India will not be entitled to the salary and other facilities, like rent free accommodation, equivalery to that of a judge of Supreme Court.The term of his office has also been extended upto 6 years, from the date he assumes office or till the day he at his the age of 65 years. To assist the Chief Election Commissioner in the performance of his onerous duties there exists a large paraphernalia of the off icers and the staff subordinate to him. Among them is the regional commissioner. Deputy Election Commissioner, secretary, Under secretary, Research officers etc. In the place of the regional commissioners a new post of Deputy Election Commissioner was created in the Election Commission for the first time in 1956.Since he Deputy Chief Election Commissioner is appointed by the president and is usually sent on deputation, he can be recalled by the central govt, at the request of the chief Election Commissioner at any time. At the state or the union territory level there is the Chief Election officer as the kingpin in the Electoral machinery. He is nominated by the Election Commission in consultation with the state Govt. He is usually a senior executive or judicial officer of the state Government.He is assisted by the joint deputy or assistant Chief Election officers as well as the rest of the staff appointed by him in consultation with the state government. He may be a whole time or pa rt time officer. At the district level the electoral duties are discharged by the District officer or the Executive Officer in addition to his normal administrative routine. The responsibility for the preparation and revision of electoral rolls is rested in an officer called the Electoral Registration officer. He may have under him Assistant Electoral Registration officers.The election in every constituency is supervised by an officer known as the returning officer nominated by the Election commission in consultation with the govt, of the state. The same officer can be nominated as returning officer r more than one constituencies. He is assisted by one or more assistant Returning Officers so designated by the Election Commission. The staff consisting of presiding and polling officers, for the actual conduct of the poll is appointed by the District Election officer. The District Election Officer may appoint a presiding officer for each polling station and such polling officers are ne cessary.The presiding officer keeps order of the pooling station and ensures the fair conduct of the poll. Functions and powers of the Election Commission: The Election Commission of India has to perform multifarious duties assigned to it under the constitution. Some of the principal functions of the commission are: (1) Demarcation of constituencies: To facilitate the process of elections a country has to be divided into several constituencies. The task of delimiting constituencies is generally performed by a delimitation commission.But the power to delimit parliamentary and assembly constituencies for the first general elections in 1951 was conferred on the president. The Election Commission distributed the seats district wise in each one of the states and directed the Chief Electoral Officers to prepare proposals for the physical demarcation of constituencies according to the prescribed criteria. The procedure adopted in the delimitation of constituencies in 1951 led to a virtual power in the hands of the ruling party to decide the contours of the constituencies as it suited its designs.The association of parliamentary Advisory committees with the delimitation commission gave top priority to political consideration. The Election Commission strongly pleaded for taking away this power from the parliament. The Delimitation commission was to consist of three members, two of whom were to be nominated by the president from serving or retired judges of the Supreme Court or High Courts while the Chief Election Commissioner was to be an ex-officio member. (2) Electoral Rolls:The second important but tedious function of the Election Commission is to prepare for identification the upto date list of all the persons who are entitled for voting at the poll. (3) Recognition of political parties and Allotment of Symbols: A new part IV A has been added to the representation of the people Amendment Act, 1951 on registration of political parties. Section 29 A now inserted prov ides for registration with the commission, of associations and bodies of individual citizens of India as political parties for purpose of this Act. This provision came into force from June 15, 1989.A recognised political party has been classified either as a National Party or a state party under paragraph 7 of the Elections symbol order 1968. Another important function of the Election Commissioner is to allot symbols to the political parties and the candidates, and also to accord recognition to the political parties. The commission has specified certain symbols as reserved and others as free. The reserved symbols are only available for candidates sponsored by the political parties and the free symbols are equally available to other candidates.The Election Commission has power to adjudicate upon disputes with regard to recognition of political parties and rival claims to a particular symbol for the purposes of elections. (4) Scrutiny of the Nomination Papers: Another function of the Election Commission is to examine the nomination papers of the candidates. These papers are accepted if found in order, but rejected otherwise. This duty is performed by the returning officer who notifies to all the contesting candidates the date, time and place for the formal scrutiny of nomination papers.The Returning officer summarily but judicially examines all the nomination papers and decides the objection raised. He is also to see whether the requisite requirements of security deposit, election symbol, election agent etc. have also been fulfilled. He is empowered to reject the nomination papers either by upholding the objection raised by a rival candidate or on his own motion or any of the following (a) that the candidate either is not qualified or is disqualified to fill the seat under any of the relevant constitutional provisions viz. Articles 84. 02, 173 and 191 (b) that the provision of sections 33 and 34 of the representation of the people's Act 1951 have not been compli ed with and (c) that the signature of the candidate or the proposer on the nomination or papers is not genuine. (5) The conduct of the poll: Another stupendous task that the Election Commission has to undertake is the conduct of the poll throughout the whole of India. In a parliamentary constituency, the returning officer is to make suitable arrangements for conducting the poll with the prior approval of the Election Commission.The commission can order a Ripoll for the whole constituency under compulsion of circumstances. Articles 324 confers on the Election Commission necessary powers to conduct the elections including the power to countermand the poll in a constituency and ordering a fresh poll there in because of hooliganism and break down of law and order at the line of polling or counting of votes. (6) Election Expenses: Another most controversial function that the election commission has perform is no scrutinize the accounts of election expenses submitted by contestants in ele ctions.In India every contesting candidate is required to maintain and file the accounts of his election expenses. Within a prescribed period after publication of the result of his election within 10 days from the last date of filing the returns the Returning Officer submits to the Election Commission a list of all the candidates and their agents together with their returns as also his observation in respect of candidates who have failed to lodge returns in the specified time and a accordance with the procedure prescribed by law.The commission scrutinizes the accounts and dudes whether the returns are in proper form and whether they have been lodged in time. In case of default it notifies the candidates or their agents of there disqualification by publishing these in the official Gazette. Role of the Election Commission: Election is the contrivance through which a modern state creates amongst its citizens a sense of involvement and participation in public affairs. It is through popu lar elections that the authority of a govt, is clouted with legitimacy and peaceful and orderly transfer of authority to new leaders is ensured.For this it was necessary than an independent Election Commission with its vast paraphernalia should be set up in the country. Such a commission would ensure fair and free election of the representatives of the people at all levels. According to L. K. Advani, â€Å"The Election Commission occupies a pivotal place in the scheme of the Indian constitution. During recent years it has willingly or unwillingly abdicated its independent Supra governmental authority and accepted for itself the role of a mere official department charged with the conduct of elections. The relations between CES and the central and state Governments are not cordial. The confrontation and the ensuing embarrassment for the Governments as a result of the ruling given by Chief Election Commissioner J. N. Seshan have only been increasing. With a critical evaluation of the working of the Election Commission of India so far as we can now infer that: Firstly, the working of the Elections Commission of India during the last four decades has shown that the Election Commission worked independently and impartially, as well as efficiently.Secondly, the Election Commission has fulfilled all the constitutional obligations, and has never tried to go beyond or over step the limits of the constitution. It always worked within the frame work of the constitution. Thirdly, when the Election Commission conducted the first General Election in 1951-52 the electorate were just 17 million but the present strength of the electorate is about 50 crores. The commission, has however been able to cope with its ever mounting responsibilities. It has the capacity to meet new challenges and faced the situation boldly.Fourthly, although the faith of the people in democracy, its institutions and political parties has eroded but their faith in the Election Commission has all the mor e strengthened or fortified. According to the Election Commission, the very fact that in almost all states the ruling parties have suffer setbacks shows that the elections have been free and fair. It has given the lie to the wide spread belief that the party in power will use official machinery and influence the voters in its favour.